Middle Hills Research Articles

Recent Trends in the Study of Springs in Nepal: A Review

Springs, a component of groundwater systems, are a vital source of fresh water for fulfilling people's demand for drinking water, household uses, and irrigation, especially in the Middle Hill region of Nepal. Springs provide water for base flows and lifelines for many rivers originating from the Middle Hill regions. The present study reviews a recent trend of spring studies and investigations in Nepal through a systematic search of published and unpublished works related to springs, which are freely available. The results show 47 publications, out of 30 are published, and 17 are unpublished. The origin of published work is mainly related to project-related works, whereas unpublished works come from the academic sector for fulfilling academic criteria for thesis research. According to the physiographical division of Nepal, the study area falls in the Middle Hills of Nepal, with the maximum area located in Bagmati Province. Most of the studies that qualitative rather than quantitative information of springs. Studies are not linked with spring source and their seasonal dynamics. However, clearly available data, attributes and information about springs from 47 reviewed documents are noted. Systematic data generation and a standard framework for data collection are also missing. Nevertheless, out of 47 studies, including 11 published and 4 unpublished, the total number of springs per sq. km. in the Middle Hill region of Nepal is estimated as 2.57, which can be integrated after more research on future springs–related work.

Participatory action and learning in forest management: A field worker's guidebook for supporting community forest management

The guidebook introduces Participatory Action and Learning (PAL) as an approach for both FUG members and forestry field staff tolearn together to promote active and equitable management of forest. Simply, PAL is about how facilitators and users act together tolearn from experience, and hence continually update the plans and subsequent actions. It is based on the concept of the learning cycle for participatory action research (PAR) used by FRP/DFID funded FFMP, a collaborative research project of Department of International and Rural Development (DIRD), The University of Reading, UK, Livelihoods and Forestry Programme (LFP). It is a unique synthesis of experiences gained through intensive action research in forest management with four forest users groups in the middle hills, while at the same time enriched by the experiences of LFP.

National‐Scale Rainfall‐Triggered Landslide Susceptibility and Exposure in Nepal

AbstractNepal is one of the most landslide‐prone countries in the world, with year‐on‐year impacts resulting in loss of life and imposing a chronic impediment to sustainable livelihoods. Living with landslides is a daily reality for an increasing number of people, so establishing the nature of landslide hazard and risk is essential. Here we develop a model of landslide susceptibility for Nepal and use this to generate a nationwide geographical profile of exposure to rainfall‐triggered landslides. We model landslide susceptibility using a fuzzy overlay approach based on freely‐available topographic data, trained on an inventory of mapped landslides, and combine this with high resolution population and building data to describe the spatial distribution of exposure to landslides. We find that whilst landslide susceptibility is highest in the High Himalaya, exposure is highest within the Middle Hills, but this is highly spatially variable and skewed to on average relatively low values. Around 4 × 106 Nepalis (∼15% of the population) live in areas considered to be at moderate or higher degree of exposure to landsliding (>0.25 of the maximum), and critically this number is highly sensitive to even small variations in landslide susceptibility. Our results show a complex relationship between landslides and buildings, that implies wider complexity in the association between physical exposure to landslides and poverty. This analysis for the first time brings into focus the geography of the landslide exposure and risk case load in Nepal, and demonstrates limitations of assessing future risk based on limited records of previous events.

How Nutritive are the Pasture Browse Species of Nepali Middle Hills?

How Nutritive are the Pasture Browse Species of Nepali Middle Hills?

Pelvic Organ Prolapse: Are Conventional Ways of Managing the Ailment Sufficient?

Beginning with how women know about the particular condition of having pelvic organ prolapse, this article examines what women do when they know about this medical condition. The paper specifically addresses the customary management of this health problem by women. In the process, it also clarifies how people come to possess this knowledge. It also looks at whether this knowledge is enough to treat the diseases or if they also need to stay away from alternative forms of therapy. While doing so, this article also examines whether women with uterine prolapse have narrower healing pathways that only go in one direction or if there are other options in a plural healing context. The ethnographic data from an anthropological study carried out in Nepal’s middle hills served as the basis for the development of this essay.

Inventory Results of 101 Natural Forests in the Middle Hills of Nepal over Two Decades

Repeated forest-resource inventories provide indispensable information to evaluate, for example, the mean growth rate of stands and changes in tree-species composition in an area.This paper presents a summary of such longitudinal forest inventory data in the Middle Hills of Nepal, where deforestation has been an issue. Our first inventory was implemented between 1997 and 1999 and measured 3839 plots of 100 square meters (m 2 ). Our second inventory was conducted between 2014 and 2016 and measured 3765 plots of 100 m 2 . We found that over these two decades, the number of trees per hectare (ha -1) significantly improved. The number of stands ha -1 with diameter at breast height (DBH) of 10 centimeters (cm) and above went from 361.2 in the first inventory to 466.2 in the second inventory. We also found that not only the number of stands but also the quality of stands significantly improved. The number of stands with DBH of 30 cm and above ha-1 increased from 72.9 to 99.6. The mean alpha diversity, the number of trees species in a plot, rose to 2.1 from 1.6 in the initial inventory. In sum,“green has made a bold comeback in the Middle Hills”. Our indices evaluating the intensities of human activities on the plots suggest that these improvements in forest-resource conditions may be due to the decreased use of forests in the Middle Hills over these two decades.

A dataset of pig feces and urine components in the Scientific Observation and Experiment Station of Livestock Equipment Engineering in Southwest of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs in 2018

The Scientific Observation and Experiment Station of Livestock Equipment Engineering in Southwest of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs is located at the junction of the middle hills of Sichuan Basin and the parallel ridges and valleys in the east of Sichuan Basin, within the geographical coordinates of 105°17'-105°44' E longitude and 29°15'-29°41' N latitude. The Station has been monitoring pig feces and urine components for DLY pigs since October 2017. The monitoring experiment of this dataset began in the summer of 2018 and continued for four consecutive quarters. The experimental animals in each quarter cover nursery pigs (about 20 kg), fatting pigs (about 70 kg) and breeding sows in three growth stages. These pigs were raised in metabolic cages equipped with fecal and urine collection devices to monitor fecal and urine production as well as their composition. Fecal data include water content, organic matter, ammonia nitrogen, total nitrogen, total phosphorus and heavy metal contents (mainly Cu and Zn). Urine data include pH, COD, ammonia nitrogen, total nitrogen and total phosphorus. Sample collection, transportation and testing are strictly in accordance with specifications to eliminate the loss and error, ensuring high levels of repeatability and reproducibility in the tests. Based on the continuous data accumulation and mining, we produced the dynamic change database of pig feces and urine composition to reveal the changing rules and influencing factors of pig feces and urine composition. The dataset is expected to provide basic data with scientific value for the safe treatment and rational utilization of livestock manure and urine, as well as the formulation of related policies.

The Succession of Farmers’ Perceptions of Transitioning Landscapes – A Case Study of Agroforestry in the Middle Hills of Nepal

Out-migration from small-scale agricultural holdings in Nepal’s middle hills is resulting in forest succession on abandoned land. Such early landscape transitions are often guided by policy to maintain a productivist path. However, farming households in rural Nepal are themselves transitioning from their dependence and attachment to the land. The walk and talk methodology was selected to follow up socioecological surveys with farmers in the middle hills to understand perceptions of forest succession on abandoned agricultural land. This participatory research methodology engages people in their own socio-ecological context – with farmers leading researchers along paths that advances dialogue over the course of the interview. Based on analysis of the discussions and observations of attitudes, perceptions of changing landuse and benefits associated with forest succession evolved with time since land abandonment. Early stage perceptions that focused on the loss of previously productive land developed over time to include attitudes of tolerance, acceptance and even commendation of the rewards gained from tree resources. The results infer that adaptation to the changing landscape is a continuous process that requires reflexive policies and supporting institutions that enable stages of adjustment during transition. Transition management that anticipates actors’ concerns from the outset could assist transformation of agricultural landscapes and improve resilience in the socio-ecological system for sustainable livelihood outcomes. Opportunities within each stage of transition, which include the promotion of successional agroforestry systems, require different forms of support as farmers adapt their outlooks to alternative landscapes and livelihoods that can create resilience through diversity.

Influence of Rural Out-Migration on Household Participation in Community Forest Management? Evidence from the Middle Hills of Nepal

Rural out-migration was a rare socio-economic phenomenon when community forestry began in the 1980s in Nepal. Now, out-migration significantly influences nearly every aspect of rural livelihoods in the country. However, it is unclear how out-migration affects community forestry governance, which is essential for sustainable rural development. Therefore, this paper addresses the following research question: Does rural out-migration affect forest users’ participation in community forestry decision-making and management practices? This paper draws on data collected from an extensive survey of 415 households from 15 community forest user groups in 2 Mid-Hill districts of Nepal. The research used ordered-logit regression to model the impacts of out-migration on participation in forest management and decision-making, while controlling for a number of other socio-economic factors. The model results show that total household size and number of internal migrants, together with multiple resource characteristics and institutional attributes, were major factors affecting participation in decision-making and forest management. However, the number of international migrants did not have a significant role in determining the levels of the participation. This study provides valuable insights for future community forestry policymaking that aims to address the effects of out-migration on community forest management in Nepal.

Influence of Rural Out-Migration on Household Participation in Community Forest Management? Evidence from the Middle Hills of Nepal

Influence of Rural Out-Migration on Household Participation in Community Forest Management? Evidence from the Middle Hills of Nepal

Carbon Stock Assessment in Silvopastoral Systems along an Elevational Gradient: A Study from Cattle Producers in the Sumaco Biosphere Reserve, Ecuadorian Amazon

Silvopastoral system (SPS) has been considered as a sustainable management system contribute to greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction, among other benefits compared with open pasture. However, little research has been conducted on the soil and tree biomass carbon stored in traditional pasture with dispersed trees (PWT) compared with pasture in monoculture (PM). The present study was conducted in the Ecuadorian Amazon Region (EAR), along an elevational gradient from 400 to 2000 masl., within the buffer and transition zone of the Sumaco Biosphere Reserve (SBR), using 71 temporary circular plots of 2826 m2, where 26 plots were stablished in PWT and 45 plots in PM. The main results in PWT show significant differences (p ≤ 0.01) between aboveground carbon biomass (AGCtrees) from 41.1 (lowlands), 26.5 (Middle hills) and 16.7 (high mountains) Mg ha−1 respectively, with an average of 31.0 Mg ha−1 in the whole study area. The total carbon pool along the altitudinal gradient in five components: (AGCtrees), belowground carbon (BGCtrees), pasture carbon (AGClitter+pasture) and carbon in soil components (0–10 and 10–30 cm) for PWT ranged from 112.80 (lowlands) to 91.34 (high mountains) Mg ha−1; while for the PM systems assessing three components (AGClitter+pasture) and carbon in soil components (0–10 and 10–30 cm) ranged from 52.5 (lowlands) to 77.8 (middle zone) Mg ha−1. Finally, the paper shows the main dominant tree species in pasture systems that contribute to carbon storage along elevational gradient and concludes with recommendations for decision-making aimed at improving cattle ranching systems through a silvopastoral approach to mitigate the effects of climate change.

Impacts of COVID-19 pandemic on the livelihoods of rural households in the community forestry landscape in the Middle Hills of Nepal

The novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has severely affected all sectors of the economy, and the impacts are expected to last-long. One major impact is that migrants return to their original households in rural communities due to loss of jobs. Since rural communities are highly dependent on forest and agriculture for livelihoods, an influx of return migrants likely increases the consumption of forest products and intensifies the agriculture practices, increasing the pressure on forest resources. Based on in-person interview of 215 in 2018 before the pandemic and a phone interview of the same 215 rural households in 2021 at the peak of the pandemic in Kavrepalanchowk district in Nepal, this study addresses the following research questions: (1) Does COVID-19 exert differential impacts among the socio-economic groups? (2) How do return migrants affect the rural land use? (3) Do return migrants put additional pressure on forests resources? The rare before-and-after dataset provide a precious opportunity to assess the COVID-19 impacts on the livelihoods of rural households in the community forestry landscape in the Middle Hills of Nepal. We found that the impacts of COVID-19 were severe on the households with larger family size, those belonging to the marginalized caste groups, having lower number of livestock, low wellbeing index, those who rely on daily wage-based occupation, with low level of education, and the households with return migrants. A significant number of migrants were found to return to their village of origin. As a result, there was a decrease in abandoned land and an increase in the livestock number and forest product use. These findings provide timely insights for the post-pandemic recovery efforts in better targeting needy household with limited resource in the community forestry landscape in the Middle Hills of Nepal.

Affirmative Policy in Nepal’s Community Forestry: Does it Make a Difference in Terms of Social Sustainability?

Decentralized forest management is criticized for not involving women in decision-making. The study explores what the introduction of affirmative policy in community forestry committees means for the participation of women in decision making in four cases in the middle hills of Nepal. The qualitative analysis of interviews and observations draws on feminist political ecology, a women’s participation typology, the critical mass theory and gender justice. The findings centre on the importance of electoral procedures, the role of authorities, the role of the familial context and whether and how women internalized and contested patriarchal norms. The women’s quota was found to have had as yet little impact on substantive participation, yet the enhanced exposure of female committee members to the discrepancy between the gender equality discourse introduced in community forestry and the persistent male domination seemed to create, in a few women performing as critical actors, an enhanced awareness of male suppression; an awareness that is a prerequisite for contestation of those patriarchal norms denying women access to power over forest and, generally speaking, of gender injustice. This research reports examples of women, brought in the executive committees by the studied affirmative policies, successfully contesting traditional gender roles and gender injustice, negotiating for them and for the other women, a more effective and meaningful participation in the management of Community Forests.

Observations on the Family Cyperaceae of West Bengal, India

The members of the Cyperaceae are commonly called as the Sedges. West Bengal possesses 189 species, 6 - subspecies, and 5 - vatiety of sedges, under 20 - genera belonging to 7 - tribes under 2 - subfamilies. Most of the Cyperaceae grows within the Asian boundaries from Western to SE Asia and up to Australia and many are fond as pan tropical and Cosmopolitan in their distribution. Comparative study of the Cyperaceae of the adjoining region of the state reveals that the state of West Bengal has a rich Sedge flora in its credits. There are 18 endemic species of the Cyperaceae reported from the state of West Bengal of which Carex is the most dominating genus with 12 - endemic species. The perusal of the altitudinal growth habit reveals that the numbers of Genera and species are gradually lowering down with the increase of altitude. Cyperus, Fimbristylis, Schoenoplectus etc. are the most important genera found to grow mostly in the plains to Middle hills region up to an altitude of 1500m. Carex is a genus which mostly inhabitant of the upper to cold temperate region of the state ranging an altitude of 2100m – 3800m.

Characteristics of Atmospheric Particle-bound Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds over the Himalayan Middle Hills: Implications for Sources and Health Risk Assessment

This study was conducted in the Central Himalayan middle hills to understand the nature of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) embedded in aerosol particles, their sources and human health risk assessments. The level of sum of 15 particle-phase PAHs was between 9 and 335 ng/m3, with an average concentration of 73±66 ng/m3. There were strong seasonal differences in total suspended particles (TSP) and particle-bound PAH concentrations with higher concentrations in winter, followed by pre-monsoon and lowest in monsoon. The main contributor to the suspended particles was 5-ring PAHs (32%), followed by 4-ring (29%), 6-ring (28%), and 3-ring PAHs (11%). Conversely, the gas-phase PAHs showed that 3-ring PAHs contributed utmost to the total particles. The molecular ratios and principal component analysis indicated that both petrogenic and pyrogenic sources, particularly fossil fuel combustion, biomass combustion, and car exhausts, were the major sources of PAHs. The overall average Benzo (a)pyrene equivalent concentration of particulate PAHs was 11.71 ng/m3, which substantially exceeded the WHO guideline (1 ng/m3), and indicated the potential health risks for local residents. The average lifetime inhalation cancer risk (ILCR) estimates associated with carcinogenic PAHs was 8.78×10−6 for adults, suggesting the possible cancer risk and 2.47×10−5 for children, signifying extreme carcinogenic effects of PAHs on children’s health. Therefore, strict measures should be taken to reduce PAHs emissions in the region.

Earthquake Impacts on the Livelihoods of Community Forest Users in Sindhupalchok District, Nepal, and Their Perceptions towards Forest Conservation

Community forests are a crucial component of farming systems and people’s livelihoods in the rural middle hills of Nepal, where the population depends upon the forest for fuelwood, fodder, and leaf litter for their daily needs. This study aims to assess the perception of community forest user groups towards their postearthquake situations by using the five forms of capital from the sustainable livelihood framework. It further analyzes whether forest user’s attitudes towards forest conservation have changed or not. In addition to household interviews with 68 earthquake-affected households and extensive visits to the study area, key informant interviews and focus group discussions were conducted. This study confirms that the community forest user groups perceived negative effects on the natural, physical, human, and financial capitals, whereas they perceived a positive effect on social capital after the earthquake. Controlled access to forest products, such as timber collection during the recovery phase, restricted their resilience, although nontimber forest products supported it. Low agricultural production because of the scarcity of water for irrigation, as well as the soil infertility because of the landslides, caused local people to shift towards nonagricultural activities for income generation. Further, out-migration for job opportunities resulted in an inflow of remittances and, thus, manpower shortages were observed. Our results show that, despite facing the postdisaster impact on their livelihoods, 92% of the respondents were found to be positive towards forest conservation. This was because of their emotional attachment to the forest and the benefits received from the forest in the past. Local institutional policies and mechanisms must be strengthened to provide communities with the knowledge, skills, and practices for effective postdisaster recovery or for upcoming disasters, as well as the benefits of promoting sustainable forest conservation.

Thinking beyond domestic water supply: approaches to advance multiple-use water systems (MUS) in the rural hills of Nepal

ABSTRACT The development of multiple-use water systems (MUS) in Nepal has mostly relied on international/non-governmental organizations. Despite the growing interest in MUS within the country, the approach has not yet received space in government policy and programmes, limiting its wider implementation. We seek to understand both the challenges to, and strategies for, scaling-up MUS, especially with regard to how MUS could be incorporated into Nepali institutional and policy processes arising from the adoption of a three-tier (federal, state and local) federal governance system. Our recommendations are informed by a study of MUS in the middle hills of Nepal.

Parent reports of children's emotional and behavioral problems in a low- and middle- income country (LMIC): An epidemiological study of Nepali schoolchildren.

As epidemiological data on child mental health in low- and middle-income countries are limited, a large-scale survey was undertaken to estimate the prevalence and amount of child emotional and behavioral problems (EBP) in Nepal as reported by the parents. 3820 schoolchildren aged 6-18 years were selected from 16 districts of the three geographical regions of Nepal, including rural, semi-urban and urban areas. We used the Nepali version of the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL)/6-18 years as screening instrument. Comparisons of child problems between genders and between the seven largest castes and ethnic groups were carried out by analysis of variance. Prevalence was computed based on American norms. Adjusted prevalence of Total Problems was 18.3% (boys: 19.1%; girls:17.6%). The prevalence of internalizing problems was higher than externalizing problems. The mean scores of Total, Externalizing, and Internalizing problems were 29.7 (SD 25.6), 7.7 (SD 8.0), and 9.1 (SD 8.1), respectively. The Khas Kaami (Dalit) group scored the highest, and the indigenous Tharu group scored the lowest on all scales. In the Mountains and Middle Hills regions, problem scores were higher in the rural areas, whereas in the Tarai region, they were higher in the urban areas. The prevalence and magnitude of emotional and behavioral problems in Nepali children were found to be high compared to findings in meta-analyses worldwide. Problem scores varied according to gender, castes /ethnic groups, and living areas. Our findings highlight the need for a stronger focus on child mental problems in a low-and middle-income country like Nepal.

Changing Rural Livelihoods and Forest Use Transition in the Middle Hills of Nepal

In recent decades, out-migration has become a key livelihood strategy for many rural households in the middle hills region of Nepal. In this region, rural communities are key actors in the management of local resources such as community forests. Analysis of the link between community forests and out-migration is largely missing in the literature, even though the demographic changes associated with out-migration affect forest resource use and management. This article discusses how rural communities and traditional landscapes in the middle hills are changing following out-migration and how this process has changed the management by rural communities of local forests (including community forests). Overall, the research found a reduced dependency by households on forest products (e.g. firewood, fodder and timber) sourced from community forests. Also, the reduced demand is being supplied increasingly from trees/forests grown on private farmland, including natural regenerated forests and trees planted on abandoned farmland. The declining need for forest products and the lack of an economic incentive for active forest management coupled with a decreasing sense of community has reduced the interest in community forests, leading to less intensive and infrequent forest management. Given the prevalence of out-migration and the changing socio-economic context in the middle hills, it appears time to reconsider the management of community forests beyond a narrow range of uses to enable greater commercialization and encourage ecosystem services to be harnessed so community forests better align with contemporary rural livelihoods and landscapes.

Species composition, diversity, and carbon stock in trees outside forests in middle hills of Nepal

Trees outside forests (TOF) are integral components of rural livelihoods providing fodder, fruit, firewood, timber, and other ecosystem services. The extent and magnitude of the contribution of TOF may vary with the different socioeconomic and demographic factors of the households (HHs) within a community. Based on a comprehensive survey of 78 HHs and an inventory of their farms in the Tanahun district, Nepal, this study assessed the species diversity, richness, and carbon storage in TOF in various socioeconomic strata. We found 623 individual trees representing 38 species and 21 families. Species diversity was the highest in the farmland owned by indigenous people according to caste, middle-income class according to the well-being class, and farmers according to the main occupation of the HH. Species diversity varied significantly with the amount of land, the number of livestock, and the distance from one's home to forests; furthermore, the carbon stock per HH varied significantly with the amount of land, the number of livestock, caste, and well-being class. TOF contribute to a national carbon budget and therefore need to be considered in nationally determined contributions and performance-based payments in forestry systems (REDD+). Efforts to regularly measure and monitor TOF by including them in the national forest inventory system are crucial to record their contributions to the overall livelihood of local people and the national carbon budget.