Middle School Grades Research Articles

Academic language use in middle school informational writing.

Learning to write the complex academic language (AL) associated with a discipline (like science) is a critical task in education, with middle school being a key developmental period. However, we need more research to guide how we assess students' learning to write AL, especially if we want to create assessment that guides more effective instruction. We evaluated middle school students' informational writing for six different measures of AL to determine which ones were most strongly related to writing quality and were most indicative of the unique features of informational writing. We also examined which metrics were sensitive to growth across middle school. Our sample consists of informational compositions from 285 students in Grade 5 (n = 175) and Grade 8 (n = 110) in a Midwestern state in the United States. Path modelling was used to determine the degree to which the AL metrics are associated with writing quality and narrativity in each grade. Overall, the six measures of AL explained 70% of the variance in students' writing quality. We found that a new measure, number of long words, outperformed other more established measures at the word level and should be used in assessment of informational writing quality. We also found that automated scores at the sentence level better detected development across middle school grade levels than typical rubrics of writing quality. Results provide promising avenues for the assessment of malleable aspects of AL in middle school informational writing.

Predictors of social withdrawal among early adolescents in Korea: a latent growth class analysis

Abstract Background This study examines the trajectory of social withdrawal from the fourth grade of elementary school to the first grade of middle school in Korea. By classifying them, we identify individual differences such as individual, family, and school factors. Methods This study uses data from the Korean Youth Panel Survey (KYCPS) conducted by the Korea Youth Policy Research Institute, which includes data from the 1st-4th waves of KYCPS 2018, with a total of 2,607 participants (1,313 boys and 1,294 girls). A latent class growth analysis verifies the trajectory of youth social withdrawal, classifies latent classes, and identifies predictive. SPSS 24.0 was used to analyze the main variables’ characteristics, descriptive analysis, and reliability. Mplus 8.9 was used to test the research model. Results First, results indicated that three was the optimum number of latent classes. We identified three latent classes ‘high level of withdrawal continued (HL)’, ‘medium level of withdrawal increased (ML)’, and ‘low level of withdrawal increased (LL)’. Second, when compared the ‘LL’ and ‘HL’ groups, the higher the self-esteem, the higher the friendship, and the higher the dependence on smartphones, the more likely it was to be in the ‘HL’ group. Third, when comparing ‘LL’ and ‘ML’ groups, the more negative the parenting attitude, the more likely it was to be in the ‘ML’ group. On the other hand, higher self-esteem and more positive friend and teacher relationships were associated with a higher likelihood of being in the ‘LL’ group. Conclusions It is necessary to seek differentiated interventions to prevent social withdrawal among early adolescents. Parental education to understand the adolescent period and practical approaches to intervene in the negative psycho-emotional aspects of adolescents continuously are needed to enhance the healthy psychological development of early adolescents. Key messages • The higher the self-esteem, the higher the friendship, and the higher the dependence on smartphones, the more likely it was to be in the ‘high level of withdrawal continued’ group. • Higher self-esteem and more positive friend and teacher relationships were associated with a higher likelihood of being in the ‘low level of withdrawal increased’ group.

Associations of adolescent academic performance, sports, disordered eating, and menstrual dysfunction

Abstract Background Regular menstruation is a crucial indicator of comprehensive well-being in adolescents. We aimed to assess risk factors associated with menstrual cycle dysfunction in a population-based cohort of high school students, focusing on academic performance, sports participation, and disordered eating. Methods In 2022, we recruited 1161 female first-year students from 21 diverse high schools in the capital region of Finland. They completed an online survey comprising questions about menstrual cycle, academic achievement, sports involvement, disordered eating and school burnout. Results Of 935 (81%) participants (mean age 16) not using hormonal preparations, 336 (37%) reported irregular menstruation. Adolescents with irregular menstruation showed higher middle school grade point average (GPA) (OR 1.4, 95% CI 1.1-1.8), lower body mass index (OR 2.2, 95% CI 1.3-3.5), and more disordered eating symptoms (OR 2.1, 95% CI 1.4-3.0) than adolescents with regular menstruation. While overall physical activity showed no significant correlation with irregular menstruation, casual exercisers with irregular menstruation exhibited both higher GPAs (OR 1.4, 95% CI 1.4-1.9) and more disordered eating symptoms (OR 2.6, 95% CI 1.6-4.1) than competitive athletes, whereas competitive athletes with irregular menstruation showed higher school burnout scores than casual exercisers but no disordered eating. Conclusions We recommend the use of screening tools to recognize disordered eating and school burnout among female high school students facing menstrual irregularities. Key messages • A third of adolescent females had irregular menstruation. Casual exercisers with irregular menstrual cycle were at risk of eating disorders and competitive athletes at risk of school burnout. • Screening of disordered eating and school burnout among adolescent females facing menstrual irregularities could be beneficial.

Tobacco Product Use Among Middle and High School Students - National Youth Tobacco Survey, United States, 2024.

Use of tobacco products in any form is unsafe, and nearly all tobacco product use begins during adolescence. CDC and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) analyzed data from the 2024 National Youth Tobacco Survey to determine tobacco product use among U.S. middle school (grades 6-8) and high school (grades 9-12) students. In 2024, current (previous 30-day) use of any tobacco product was reported by 10.1% of high school students (representing 1.58 million students) and 5.4% of middle school students (representing 640,000 students). Among all students, e-cigarettes were the most commonly reported tobacco product currently used (5.9%), followed by nicotine pouches (1.8%), cigarettes (1.4%), cigars (1.2%), smokeless tobacco (1.2%), other oral nicotine products (1.2%), heated tobacco products (0.8%), hookahs (0.7%), and pipe tobacco (0.5%). During 2023-2024, among all students, the estimated number who reported current use of any tobacco product decreased from 2.80 to 2.25 million students; e-cigarette use decreased (from 2.13 to 1.63 million students); and hookah use decreased (from 290,000 to 190,000 students). Among high school students, current use of any tobacco product decreased from 12.6% to 10.1% of students, and e-cigarette use decreased from 10.0% to 7.8%. Among middle school students, no statistically significant changes occurred. Evidence-based strategies can help prevent initiation and promote cessation of tobacco product use among U.S. youths.

Depression, Anxiety and Associated Factors Among Korean Adolescent Students During COVID-19.

Depression and anxiety are emotional difficulties that are common among adolescents. Adolescents suffering from depression and anxiety can exhibit problems such as antisocial behavior, aggression, and academic slump. This study aimed to explore the factors influencing adolescents' depression and anxiety during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. This study examined the data from an online student health survey conducted by the Ministry of Education in 2022. The survey participants were 131194 students ranging from the first grade of middle school to the third grade of high school. The influence of each variable on depression and anxiety was examined. Factors that predicted depression and anxiety were sex (female), grade level (higher), financial difficulties (existing or unknown), physical activity (higher), sleep time (shorter), media usage time (higher), family/friends relationship (worse), and change in the health status of family, friends, and oneself due to COVID-19 (worse). These results may help identify patterns of depression and anxiety among adolescents caused by COVID-19 and maximize the intervention effect.

Building Science Teacher Leaders for Indigenous Schools: Lessons from a Science Professional Development Workshop in Nepal

This is a case study of a science professional development workshop in Nepal with 17 teacher participants from four public schools. These schools mainly served Indigenous students in elementary, middle, and high school (Grades 9 and 10). The workshop focused on educating and building science teacher leaders for culturally relevant teaching and antiracist pedagogy by valuing and integrating Indigenous leadership practices and local knowledge. The teachers participated in a 2-day workshop co-organized by the local district education office and the local high school and led by the high school principal and a U.S.-based university faculty. Data were collected during and after the workshop through field notes, audio/video recordings of some sections of the workshop, and focus group interviews with a select group of participating teachers. The analysis of the data showed (a) struggles and opportunities to prioritize Indigenous science knowledge and Tharu sociocultural connections, (b) teachers seeking affirmation from principals to be science teacher leaders modeled on Indigenous leadership values, and (c) greater willingness for culturally relevant pedagogy among female and Indigenous teachers. The hope is that this paper will contribute to the value of a science teacher leadership professional development program (PD) in building awareness among science teachers about the value of culturally appropriate antiracist pedagogy in science teacher leaders. In addition, the PD also shows that science teacher leaders in Indigenous schools would benefit from the Indigenous relational model of leadership in leading their peers and students in antiracist and culturally relevant science teaching and learning. Finally, the study seems to indicate that a successful science teacher leader always incorporates local Indigenous community values, knowledge, and practices.

Types and Predictors of Acculturative Stress Among Multicultural Adolescents in Middle School

Objectives: This study examines how acculturative stress in multicultural adolescents changes during their middle school years and categorizes groups with similar patterns of change. Additionally, the study explores predictive variables influencing these distinct acculturative stress trajectories and verifies how depression and life satisfaction vary according to different patterns of change.Methods: Leveraging data from the Multicultural Adolescent Panel (MAPS 1) conducted by the Korea Institute for Health and Social Affairs across the fourth to sixth waves, the researchers analyzed a cohort of 1,316 participants, including multicultural adolescents and their parents. Logistic regression analysis and ANOVA were employed to investigate potential disparities in growth mixture modeling and acculturative stress latent classes based on predictive factors.Results: Three latent groups of multicultural adolescents’ acculturative stress were identified: low-retention group, persistent increasing group, persistent decrease group. The logistic regression analysis revealed that gender, bicultural acceptance attitude, Korean-language proficiency, foreign parent’s native-language proficiency, parental acculturative stress, and peer support were significantly associated with latent groups. Additionally, significant differences in depression and life satisfaction during the third grade of middle school were observed according to the types of acculturative stress changes.Conclusion: Our study results indicate the need for various support programs aimed at promoting the psychosocial adaptation of multicultural adolescents. These programs should take into account the characteristics and individual differences in acculturative stress and should be implemented at the family level to facilitate social adaptation.

Addressing violence and victimization in a school setting in Greece

The phenomenon of school violence has increasingly become the focus of research in Greece, especially during the last two decades, and includes online involvement in violence, mainly for students in middle and high school grades. In addition to the violent events that occur in school settings, adolescents are more active online than any other group and are therefore increasingly exposed to cybervictimization. The research data indicate that although cyberbullying increasingly occurs in Greece, young people, parents and educators are not aware of the extent of the problem of cybervictimization, of its main characteristics and, most importantly, of the ways to prevent it. In this article, recent data are presented on violence expressed and its implications, with an emphasis on the Greek school setting, concerning the involvement of adolescent students in incidents of bullying, cyberbullying, cybergrooming and cyber-hate speech as perpetrators, victims and bystanders. We outline the factors that lead to violence within the school setting, such as those that lead to the expression of violence and the strategies that adolescents adopt to cope with incidents of violence. Finally, the implications of this paper highlight that significant changes should be made in the field of education within school settings by recognizing the hidden structures that may sustain the phenomenon of violence to ensure that all students are reflected in the educational curriculum and supported by the institution of the school. The school setting should include initiatives to empower students to be protected and to develop critical thinking and active coping strategies against episodes of violence and bullying.

Influence of Peer Body Shape Norm and Peer Pressure Related to Body Shape on Social Media on Body Image Over-distortion of Early Adolescent Girls

This study aimed to explore the characteristics of early adolescent girls with an over-distorted body image and to examine the influence of peer descriptive norm and peer injunctive norm related to body shape and peer pressure for thinness on social media on body image over-distortion. The participants were 505 female adolescents in the 1st and 2nd grades of middle school. Descriptive statistics, frequency analysis, and binary logistic regression were used to analyze the data with SPSS 26.0. The results were as follows. First, the body image over-distortion group contained more 2nd-grader early adolescent girls than 1st graders and approximately three-quarters of the body image over-distortion group had previously attempted to lose weight. Second, peer pressure for thinness on social media significantly predicted whether early adolescent girls were in the body image over-distortion group compared to the non-distortion group. These outcomes suggest that it is necessary to create a social media culture that encourages early adolescent girls to have a realistic and healthy body shape. The results also highlight the importance of developing social media literacy education programs that inform early adolescents of the potential harm of negative comments on social media, and teach them how to recognize and dismiss indiscriminate and harmful comments and contents on social media.

코로나19 팬데믹 상황에서 초기 청소년의 가정에서의 경험과 변화에 대한 개념도 연구

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to explore the conceptual structure of early adolescents' experiences and changes at home in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: For this purpose, focusing questions were developed to generate ideas from 20 male and female students in the first and second grades of middle school, and ultimately 62 statements were derived. Research participants rated the similarity classification of the final statements and the degree to which they matched their own experiences and changes, and based on the results, multidimensional scaling and hierarchical cluster analysis were performed to derive a concept map. Results: As a result of the study, the concept map was classified six clusters and composed of two dimensions : ‘the experience of living with family members’ vs. ‘personal life experience (x-axis)’and ‘class and academic attitude vs personal activities (Y-axis)’. Six clusters were ‘increased worries and conflicts about family members’, ‘as family members spent more time together, intimacy increase’, ‘changes in personal life patterns at home and opportunities for personal growth’, ‘changes in personal life patterns and increased negative emotional experiences’, ‘increased personal activities at home’, ‘changes in (online/offline) class and academic attitudes during the COVID era’. Second, as a result of evaluating the degree of agreement, the research participants recognized the ‘increased personal activity at home’ cluster as most consistent with their own experiences and changes. Conclusion: Based on these research results, implications regarding educational intervention and support plan for the healthy growth of early adolescents who experienced COVID-19 were discussed.

مستوى معرفة معلمي الرياضيات العراقيين ومعلماتها حول اختبار TIMSS

This study aimed to find out the degree of mathematics male and female teachers’ knowledge about the TIMSS test. The researchers developed a test to measure the degree of teachers' knowledge about the TIMSS. The available sample was selected (664) male and female teachers. It represented (15.1%) of the population who teach mathematics in Iraq. The results showed that the degree of mathematics teachers' knowledge about TIMSS ranged from low to moderate, and about (21%) had a high degree of knowledge about it. The results also revealed statistically significant differences (α=0.05) due to gender, years of experience, academic qualifications and grades taught by the teacher. The differences favored females, individuals with 10 or more years of experience, those with master's or PhD qualifications, and teachers of intermediate and middle school grades. Based on these results, the researchers recommend the organization of workshops to raise awareness about the TIMSS test and to inform mathematics teachers about its content.

수업 관련 요인은 청소년의 자기결정성동기를 어떻게 변화시키는가?

Objectives This study attempted to analyze the change in the latent profile of self-determination motivation as it grew from middle school to high school and to examine the predictive effects of teaching methods, teacher characteristics, and academic stress. Methods For this purpose, Utilizing data from the 2013 Korean Education Longitudinal Study, a longitudinal panel of 7,324 students tracked from 3rd grade middle school in 2017 to 2nd grade high school in 2019 was analyzed. Descriptive statistics and correlation analyses were conducted, followed by latent transition analysis to identify changes in latent groups over time. To assess the impact of class-related variables, multiple logistic regression analysis was employed. Results First, the latent profiles of self-determination motivation in the third grade of middle school were classified into five latent groups: amotivation, heteronomous, low, moderate, and autonomous motivation type. Second, the highest transition pattern is the pattern maintained from the moderate type to the moderate type. Third, interaction classes, teacher relationships, and individualized classes showed positive predictive effects, and teacher achievement pressure showed negative predictive effects. Academic stress showed positive predictive effects in the case of ‘high motivation types’. Conclusions The results of the study provided practical implications for the transfer pattern of adolescents' self-determination motivation and instruction and interaction to improve it.

청소년의 그릿과 미래진로성취의 관계

Objectives This study aimed to investigate whether career adaptability mediates the relationship between grit and future career achievement among adolescents, based on the Career Construction Theory. Methods Utilizing longitudinal data from the Korean Children and Youth Panel Survey from the 3rd year (2020) to the 5th year (2022), a total of 1,391 participants were included. The respondents were in the 3rd grade of middle school in the 3rd year, and in the 2nd grade of high school in the 5th year. Results Statistical analysis using SPSS 29.0 and PROCESS MACRO v.43 revealed that career adaptability mediated the relationship between grit and future career achievement. Specifically, higher levels of grit were associated with greater career adaptability, which implies a stronger belief in one's ability to achieve desired occupations in the future. Conclusions The findings underscore the importance of enhancing grit and career adaptability in fostering confidence in future career achievement. Additionally, implications, limitations, and suggestions for youth career education and counseling contexts were discussed.

Psychological and Academic Adaptation Through Universal Ethnic Studies Classes: Results of a Natural Experiment.

Schools in the United States are increasingly offering ethnic studies classes, which focus on exploring students' ethnic-racial identities (ERI) and critical analysis of systemic racism, to their diverse student bodies, yet scant research exists on their effectiveness for students of different ethnic-racial backgrounds in multiracial classrooms. A policy change to require all high school students in one school district to take an ethnic studies class facilitated a natural experiment for comparing the effects of quasi-random assignment to an ethnic studies class (treatment) relative to a traditional social studies class (control; e.g., U.S. Government, Human Geography). Student surveys and school administrative data were used to compare students' ERI development, well-being, and academic outcomes across ethnic studies and control classes. Participants (N = 535 9th graders; 66.1% ethnic studies) had diverse ethnic-racial (33.5% non-Latine White, 29.5% Black, 21.1% Latine, 10.7% biracial, 2.8% Asian, 2.2% Native American) and gender identities (44.7% female, 7.1% non-binary). Ethnic studies students reported marginally higher ERI exploration and resolution than controls, and sensitivity analyses showed a statistically significant effect on ERI among participants with complete midpoint surveys. Higher resolution was associated with better psychological well-being for all students and higher attendance for White students. Students with low middle school grades (GPA < 2.0) had better high school grades in core subjects when enrolled in ethnic studies than the control class. Overall, the results of this natural experiment provide preliminary support for ethnic studies classes as a method for promoting ERI development, well-being, attendance, and academic achievement for students from diverse ethnic-racial backgrounds.

Social Studies and Love of Art: Students and Teachers Enlighten the Connections

Art and artistic activities that play a significant role in the lives of both children and adults, are an important requirement for all individuals. Cultures develop, expand, and enrich through artistic activities, which are important for the development of visual literacy, especially in social studies. The present study aims to determine the reflection of various artistic branches in social studies course and the student interest and love that art considered to evoke in the context of the social studies course. In the study, qualitative research methods and techniques were used to review relevant documents and to determine the participant views about the role of art in social studies. First, the current Turkish social studies curricula and textbooks were analyzed. Then, an interview form developed by the authors was applied to 80 students attending all grades in a public middle school and 3 teachers employed in these schools in one of the major cities in Turkey. The attributes employed by the teachers and students in the interview form were analyzed with thematic/content analysis. The study findings demonstrated that that the curricula and textbook achievements that allow activities in several art branches were limited. However, despite the limitation, the study findings demonstrated that the students were interested in different art branches and evidenced the support of the social studies to the development of interest and love for certain learning areas.

العلاقة بين حفظ القرآن الكريم لدى الطالبات للصف الثاني من المتوسطة وقدرتهن على استيعاب المفردات العربية بمعهد عبد الله بن مسعود آساهن

What is meant by vocabulary comprehension is a person's ability to use the vocabulary he possesses to communicate and express ideas with the listener, whether in writing or orally. This ability appears when developing linguistic skills such as speaking skill, listening skill, writing skill, and reading good Arabic. The meaning of memorizing the Qur’an is the attempt to enter the verses of the Qur’an into the chest and preserve it from loss and forgetfulness and to try to read it without fault, that is, without looking at the Holy Qur’an, ensuring it, preparing it, and being upright in it. Preserving what has been memorized, protecting it from loss, preventing it from forgetfulness, mental loss, and loss, and being present must have knowledge of Arabic. From it is impossible for someone who meditates on the Holy Qur’an without knowledge of the Arabic language. Research question: Is there a relationship between memorizing the Holy Qur’an among female students in the second grade of middle school and their ability to comprehend vocabulary at the Abdullah bin Masoud Asahi Institute? What was its strength and direction? The aim of writing this research is to find out the relationship between memorizing the Holy Qur’an among female students in the second year of school. Intermediate level and his ability to comprehend vocabulary at the Abdullah bin Masoud Asahi Institute. The method used in this research is the quantitative relational method and the research method used is the statistical method with a program and the result of this research is that there is a moderate relationship between memorizing the Holy Qur’an among female students in the second year of middle school and their ability to comprehend vocabulary at the Abdullah bin Masoud Asahi Institute. The value of the coefficient. The correlation is 0,476 and its direction is the same.

Science Teachers' Views On Seasons And Climate Unit

The seasons and climate unit, which is a unit requiring an interdisciplinary approach within the scope of the science course, is covered within the scope of the 8th grade middle school science course according to the recent change in the science curriculum. Within the scope of the study, We aimed to aimed to determine the views of science teachers on the seasons and climate unit. In this context, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 22 volunteer science teachers and the data obtained by descriptive analysis were coded by two different people. While coding, a process in the target-objective-implementation plane was taken into consideration. As a result of the study, it was concluded that the place of the seasons and climate unit in the curriculum was found appropriate by the teachers, the fact that there were teachers who did not receive any training on this subject during their undergraduate education revealed misconceptions in the teaching of the subject, the subject was understandable by the students, the learning level of the students was tried to increase with modeling and experimentation, and the use of educational materials other than the textbook was emphasized. Findings of the study implicate that focusing on in-service training of teachers will be beneficial for teachers to use different teaching methods and techniques in their lessons.

Mapping Motivation Cost in Physical Education: Validating a Psychometric Instrument

ABSTRACT Derived from the Expectancy-Value Theory (EVT) model, cost has drawn scholarly interest for being predicative of avoidance motivation. The study is an effort to develop and validate an instrument to measure students’ perceived costs in physical education. Through literature review and student interviews, a draft of 39 items under seven domains was developed for content validation. A total of 29 items were sent to collect psychometric evidence from two samples of 6th to 8th grade middle school students, age 11 to 15. Exploratory factor analyses (EFA) were applied on the first sample and yielded a three-factor construct to measure social costs (six items), physical costs (five items), and loss of valuable alternatives (five items). with item loadings ranging from .48 to .73. Following confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) applied on the second student sample confirmed the construct with satisfactory fitting indexes.

Antibullying Interventions in Schools: Assessing the Evidence Base.

This systematic review used established rating criteria to describe the level of evidence for interventions aimed at preventing or reducing bullying perpetration and victimization in schools, synthesized the evidence for students from racially and ethnically diverse backgrounds, and reviewed the literature for available information to conduct an economic analysis of the interventions. Major databases, gray literature, and evidence-base registries were searched to identify studies published from 2008 through 2022. The authors rated antibullying intervention models as having high, moderate, or low evidence depending on the number and rigor of studies with positive findings. Overall, 80 articles reporting on 71 original research studies describing a total of 48 antibullying interventions met the inclusion criteria for this review. Two schoolwide interventions received a high-evidence rating: the KiVa (Kiusaamista Vastaan) Antibullying Program and the Friendly Schools program. Multilevel interventions with components at the levels of school, classroom, and individual student most consistently showed strong evidence for reducing bullying behavior in elementary and middle school grades. Four interventions yielded positive effects in reducing bullying and victimization among diverse samples of students. Antibullying interventions can reduce bullying in schools. Some interventions show effectiveness with students from racially and ethnically diverse backgrounds. The gains relative to per-student costs were in the range that is considered cost-effective. Most implementation costs are spent on staff training and support. Research on successful implementation of whole-school interventions and additional synthesis of evidence pertaining to program structures would further advance the antibullying evidence base.

What books should we like? A study of gender differences and stereotypes in the reading behaviors of Chinese middle school students.

This study investigated gender differences in the reading behaviors of Chinese middle school students, and whether gender stereotypes relating to choices of reading matter are supported. A mixed-methods approach was adopted. Three thousand nine hundred and fifteen middle school (Grade 7) students completed a questionnaire designed to assess reading behaviors. Independent sample t-test and chi-square analyses were employed to examine gender differences in reading behaviors. The qualitative survey was supplemented with an open response survey (94 boys, 50 girls), which provided further insights into individuals' specific experiences and perspectives regarding reading behaviors and gender stereotypes in reading choices. This study revealed a number of gender-linked differences. Boys spent more time reading than girls but read the same number of books; boys were also more likely than girls to read digital texts, while girls were more likely to borrow their reading material. Choice of subject matter also differed: boys were more likely to read factual and action-based books, while girls' choices focused more on motives and emotions. Another significant difference was that boys paid more attention to the overall experience of reading, while girls paid more attention to the details of reading. Responses to the open response survey indicated that gender stereotypes in reading choices were prevalent among respondents, but some students' reading choices did not align with the stereotype associated with their gender. The mixed-methods approach proved valuable in both identifying gender differences in reading behaviors, and in highlighting the prevalence of gender stereotypes in reading choices among middle school students.