mid-Middle Pleistocene Research Articles

Paleoecology of an extinct Cervidae (Haploidoceros mediterraneus) of the Middle-late Pleistocene in Southern Europe

Haploidoceros mediterraneus is one of the recently described cervid taxa endemic to the Iberian Peninsula (three sites) and southern France (two sites). Compared to the other endemic cervids from Iberia that have emerged, as well, during the mid-Middle Pleistocene, its chronological and geographical range are more expanded, indicative of a relative adaptative success. However, very little is known about H. mediterraneus ecology. From site contexts and faunal associations, its habitat during the Middle and Late Pleistocene corresponded to open forest under a mildly-humid temperate Mediterranean or semi-continental climate. First, its diet was reconstructed using dental meso- and microwear and second, its relationships with other cervids over time was analysed using Multiple Component Analysis (MCA). Diet reconstruction indicates that it was mostly a browse-dominated mixed-feeder during the Middle Pleistocene. Such a relatively flexible diet has allowed it to coexist, often with some cervid taxa (Cervus and Capreolus) and exceptionally with others (Praedama/Megaloceros and Dama sp.) by resource partitioning. During the Late Pleistocene, H. mediterraneus shifted toward a more browse-specialized diet. At this period, co-occurrence analyses show that the presence of H. mediterraneus seems to exclude that of C. capreolus and D. dama. The evolution of H. mediterraneus dietary habits from the Middle to the Late Pleistocene may have led to direct competition with other browsing-specialist cervids, which may be one of the causes of its extinction.

A review on the Pleistocene occurrences and palaeobiology of Hippopotamus antiquus based on the record from the Barranc de la Boella Section (Francolí Basin, NE Iberia)

The study of European Pleistocene Hippopotamus presents unresolved questions and a lack of consensus among specialists being matter of hotly debate in the last decades. The number of taxa, their geographical and chronological distribution and their palaeobiological affinities are still under evaluation. The present work presents the results of comparative analyses using descriptive anatomy, linear biometry and geometric morphometrics of Hippopotamus specimens found in the archaeopalaeontological outcrops of the Barranc de la Boella Section (Francolí Basin, NE Iberian Peninsula) and other coeval European sites in the context of the record of the genus Hippopotamus in Europe and its putative migrations from Africa. The deposits from Barranc de la Boella Section documented for the first time the presence of hominids with Acheulian technology and hippos roughly coinciding with the Early-Middle Pleistocene Transition (EMPT), one of the periods with strongest climate asymmetry throughout the Pleistocene. The evaluation of the studied specimens and the other European record favor the consideration of Hippopotamus antiquus as the only taxon of its family present in Europe from the Early Pleistocene (ca. 2.1 Ma) to the mid-Middle Pleistocene (ca. 0.4 Ma), when the extant species (Hippopotamus amphibius) dispersed from Africa. Even so, there is a need for a more detailed understanding of the large intraspecific variability and sexual dimorphism reported within the genus Hippopotamus to characterise the phenotype of individuals in its populations across different chronologies, geographic locations, and environmental conditions. The detailed review of the distribution of H. antiquus during the EMPT raises the possibility that the Iberian and Italic peninsulas acted as climatic refugia for its populations strongly dependents of the aquatic environment during the coldest climatic stages (e.g. MIS 22).

Sulfuric acid speleogenesis and surface landform evolution along the Vienna Basin Transfer Fault: Plavecký Karst, Slovakia

Hypogene caves in the Plavecký hradný vrch Hill (Western Slovakia, Central Europe) were formed by waters ascending along faults in fractured Triassic carbonates related to the horst-graben structure at the contact of the Malé Karpaty Mountains and the NE part of the Vienna Basin. The Plavecká jaskyňa and Pec caves mostly contain horizontal passages and chambers with flat corrosion bedrock floors, fissure discharge feeders, wall water-table notches, replacement pockets, as well as a few other speleogens associated with sulfuric acid speleogenesis. The low-temperature sulfuric acid development phases of the Plavecká Jaskyňa are also indicated by the presence of sulfate minerals (i.e., gypsum and jarosite).Subaerial calcite popcorn rims were precipitated from water condensation at the edges of feeding fissures that were still active as thermal vents when the water table dropped. Hydrogen sulfide involved in the sulfuric acid speleogenesis was likely derived from anhydrites and/or hydrocarbon reservoirs with sulfate-saline connate waters in the fill of the adjacent Vienna Basin. It ascended to the surface along deep-rooted sub-vertical fault zones at the contact of the Vienna Basin with neighboring mountains. Three cave levels at 295 to 283 m asl in the Pec Cave, and five levels at 225 to 214 m asl in the Plavecká jaskyňa corresponded to phases of stable local erosional base levels in the bordering part of the Vienna Basin, most likely during periods of strongly decelerated and/or interrupted subsidence. Cave levels separated by vertical differences of only a few meters may also be related to the Pleistocene climatic cycles. The subhorizontal parts of the Pec Cave are probably of late Early Pleistocene age (˃0.99–1.07 Ma?). The two highest levels of the Plavecká jaskyňa developed during the early Middle Pleistocene (˃600 ka). Fine-grained sediments in the passage at 225 m asl with normal magnetic polarity contain jarosite. The middle level of the Plavecká jaskyňa at 220 m asl was formed in the mid-Middle Pleistocene, while the lower and lowermost levels formed in the late Middle Pleistocene (˃270 ka). The water table in the lowermost cave level probably dropped after the tectonic reactivation of the Podmalokarpatská zníženina Depression just in the front of a marginal horst structure of the Malé Karpaty Mountains.

Shivering in the Pleistocene. Human adaptations to cold exposure in Western Europe from MIS 14 to MIS 11

During the mid-Middle Pleistocene MIS 14 to MIS 11, humans spread through Western Europe from the Mediterranean peninsulas to the sub-Arctic region, and they did so not only during the warm periods but also during the glacial stages. In doing so, they were exposed to harsh environmental conditions, including low or extremely low temperatures. Here we review the distribution of archeological assemblages in Western Europe from MIS 14 to MIS 11 and obtain estimates of the climatic conditions at those localities. Estimates of the mean annual temperature, mean winter and summer temperatures, and the lowest temperature of the coldest month for each locality were obtained from the Oscillayers database. Our results show that hominins endured cold exposure not only during the glacial stages but also during the interglacials, with winter temperatures below 0 °C at many localities. The efficacy of the main physiological and behavioral adaptations that might have been used by the Middle Pleistocene hominins to cope with low temperatures is evaluated using a simple heat-loss model. Our results suggest that physiological and anatomical adaptations alone, such as increasing basal metabolic rate and subcutaneous adipose tissue, were not enough to tolerate the low winter temperatures of Western Europe, even during the MIS 13 and MIS 11 interglacials. In contrast, the use of a simple fur bed cover appears to have been an extremely effective response to low temperatures. We suggest that advanced fire production and control technology were not necessary for the colonization of northern Europe during MIS 14 and MIS 12. We propose that Middle Pleistocene European populations were able to endure the low temperatures of those glacial stages combining anatomical and physiological adaptations with behavioral responses, such as the use of shelter and simple fur clothes.

Hominin diversity in East Asia during the Middle Pleistocene: A premolar endostructural perspective

Following the recent studies of East Asian mid-Middle to early Late Pleistocene hominin material, a large spectrum of morphological diversity has been recognized and the coexistence of archaic (‘Homo erectus-like’) and derived (‘modern-like’) dental morphological patterns has been highlighted. In fact, for most of these Chinese fossils, generally categorized as ‘archaic Homo sapiens’ or ‘post-H. erectus Homo’, the taxonomic attribution is a matter of contention. With the help of μCT techniques and a deformation-based 3D geometric morphometric approach, we focused on the morphological variation in the enamel–dentine junction (EDJ) of 18 upper and lower premolars from Chinese Middle Pleistocene hominins. We then compared our results with a number of fossil and modern human groups, including Early Pleistocene H. erectus from Sangiran; late Early Pleistocene hominins from Tighenif, Algeria; classic Neanderthals; and modern humans. Our results highlight an evolutionary/chronological trend of crown base reduction, elevation of EDJ topography, and EDJ surface simplification in the hominin groups studied here. Moreover, this study brings insights to the taxonomy/phylogeny of 6 late Middle Pleistocene specimens whose evolutionary placement has been debated for decades. Among these specimens, Changyang premolars show features that can be aligned with the Asian H. erectus hypodigm, whereas Panxian Dadong and Tongzi premolars are more similar to Late Pleistocene Homo. Compared with early to mid-Middle Pleistocene hominins in East Asia, late Middle Pleistocene hominins evince an enlarged morphological variation. A persistence of archaic morphotypes and possible admixture among populations during the late Middle Pleistocene are discussed.

Structural analysis of premolar roots in Middle Pleistocene hominins from China

This study investigates permanent maxillary and mandibular premolar root structural organization in East Asian Middle Pleistocene hominins. In addition to reporting and analyzing the linear and volumetric properties of the roots, we used a landmark-free approach to both qualify and quantify in 3D premolar root shape variation of Middle Pleistocene hominins in East Asia. Moreover, we focus on some mid-to late East Asian Middle Pleistocene hominin specimens whose taxonomic attribution is unclear. We find considerable cementum in this sample of hominins, similar to other fossil groups, but clearly different from modern humans which have a very small amount of cementum. Additionally, a smaller root pulp cavity is found in later Homo (Neanderthals and modern humans). Our analyses on the crown-root surface area ratio show that East Asian Middle Pleistocene Homo erectus as well as one late Middle Pleistocene Homo sp. specimen (PA 81 P4 from Changyang site) are distinguished from other fossil and extant groups by a relatively larger root surface, stout root branches and thick cementum deposits. This may represent a distinct East Asian H. erectus dental pattern. Geometric morphometric analyses on the external root surface reveal a general trend of shape simplification along the Homo lineage examined here, and distinguish Early Pleistocene Homo, Middle Pleistocene H. erectus, Neanderthals and modern human morphologies. The late Middle Pleistocene teeth from Changyang site (PA 76 P3 and PA 81 P4) are close to East Asian H. erectus and Neanderthals, while the mid-Middle Pleistocene P3 from Panxian Dadong falls within the modern human distribution. Combined with dental crown morphology and root number/form reported in previous studies, our results show that the external root shape can be considered a taxonomically relevant indicator. In general, an evolutionary tendency towards modern human morphology is observed in part of the East Asian Middle Pleistocene specimens, while a retention of primitive, H. erectus-like features is expressed in some late Middle Pleistocene specimens, supporting a multi-lineage and discontinuous scenario of human settlements in East Asia.

Comparative observations on the premolar root and pulp canal configurations of Middle Pleistocene Homo in China.

The aim of this study is to explore the root and root canal morphology of Homo fossil occupying China during the Middle Pleistocene period. Human occupation and evolutionary dynamics in East Asia during the Middle Pleistocene period is one of the most intriguing issues in paleoanthropology, with the coexistence of multiple lineages and regional morphs suggesting a complex population interaction scenario. Although premolar root and canal morphology has certain phylogenetic, taxonomic, and functional implications, its morphological diversity, possible evolutionary trend and characteristics regarding Middle Pleistocene hominins inhabiting East Asia are still insufficiently understood; where these populations fits within the Homo lineage (with respect to root and pulp canal structure) needs to be explored. Using microtomography, we directly observed and assessed the nonmetric variability of root and canal forms in maxillary and mandibular premolars of Chinese Middle Pleistocene Homo (N = 19), and compared our observed variations with Eurasian Early Pleistocene specimens from the Asia continent (N = 1) and Java (N = 2), as well as with Neanderthals (N = 28) and recent modern humans (N = 67). A total number of nine types of root-canal forms were recorded. As a whole, the Chinese Middle Pleistocene record shows an evolutionary trend toward a modern human-like condition (a reduction of root/canal number and a simplification of root surface structure). We documented primitive signals like high percentage of Tomes' root in lower premolars. A considerable occurrence of incompletely separated root branches and bifid root and canal apices, representing evolutionary transformation from multi-root to single-root condition was also noticed. The results were compared with previous publications on Early and Middle Pleistocene Homo in East Africa, North Africa, and Eurasia. This work provides new original data, incorporates the latest human fossil discoveries and suggests that analyzing the variation of premolar root structural organization, notably integrating together root/canal form and number, could possibly contribute to taxonomic and phylogenetic assessments. The mid-Middle Pleistocene populations, or "classic" Homo erectus, in our study show closer affinity to Early and Middle Pleistocene hominins in Eurasia, than to East African early Homo, which supports the suggestion that at least some of the Early Pleistocene hominin groups in Eurasia contribute to the later population; on the other hand, it is still difficult to clearly trace the evolutionary fate of those late Middle Pleistocene populations (roughly assigned as archaic Homo sapiens through a craniodental perspective). More comparable materials from the Early to Middle Pleistocene period as well as precise chronological framework is needed to further explore the evolutionary trends of archaic hominins in the Asian continent before the arrival of modern humans.

Background to Neanderthal presence in Western Mediterranean Europe

This paper provides a background to Neanderthal presence in Western Mediterranean Europe. Habitual tool-use underpinned human survival in late Early Pleistocene western Mediterranean Europe. By the onset of the early Middle Pleistocene, early humans (descendants of Homo antecessor in all likelihood) were exploiting diverse biotopes, sometimes (perhaps often) attaining primary access to large game, and deploying a variety of stone artifacts and rock types, which implies not only manual dexterity but also technical competence and cognitive versatility. Late Early Pleistocene human behaviour foreshadowed that of Middle Pleistocene pre-Neanderthal humans whose background conceivably had deep regional roots. By the mid-Middle Pleistocene Homo heidelbergensis, some of whose anatomical features herald Neanderthal morphology, was exploiting a wide range of natural resources in western Mediterranean environments, including small game and plants. Neanderthal morphology began to emerge during the second half of the Middle Pleistocene, accompanied by increasing technological diversity and an expanding variety of small tools, conjecturally favoured by hafting, perhaps following development of wooden spears (or other tools) and adhesive and binding technologies, and generation and heat-control of fire (which undoubtedly was necessary for activities inside Bruniquel cave). By the onset of the last interglacial period, Neanderthal morphology and Mousterian artifacts are widespread, and there are indications of coordinated retrieval and treatment of body-parts of large ungulates.

The fossil teeth of the Peking Man

This study provides new original data, including the endostructure of most Zhoukoudian H. erectus teeth preserved to date, since the publication of Black in 1927 and Weidenreich in 1937. The new evidence ratifies the similarities of Zhoukoudian with other East Asian mid-Middle Pleistocene hominins such as Hexian and Yiyuan, and allows defining a dental pattern potentially characteristic of this population commonly referred to as classic H. erectus. Given the possible chronological overlaps of classic H. erectus with other archaic Homo, the characterization of this group becomes a key issue when deciphering the taxonomy and evolutionary scenario of the Middle Pleistocene hominins in East Asia. Internally, the most remarkable feature of Zhoukoudian teeth is the highly crenulated enamel-dentine junction (EDJ) and its imprint on the roof of the pulp cavity. So far, this “dendrite-like” EDJ has been found only in East Asia Middle Pleistocene hominins although a large group of samples were assessed, and it could be useful to dentally define classic H. erectus in China. The crenulated EDJ surface, together with the stout roots and the taurodontism could be a mechanism to withstand high biomechanical demand despite a general dentognathic reduction, particularly of the crowns, in these populations.

Archaic Hominin Populations in Asia before the Arrival of Modern Humans

Our traditional scheme during the twentieth century was that Homo erectus had thrived on the vast terrain of eastern Asia since the Early Pleistocene, followed by the appearance of a more advanced but still primitive form of Homo in China during the mid-Middle Pleistocene. Recent discoveries or (re-)recognitions of other archaic hominins, such as Homo floresiensis from an Indonesian island, Neanderthals and the “Denisovans” from southern Siberia, as well as an extremely robust mandible from Taiwan, now open up a different view. By incorporating these latest discoveries, this paper intends to offer a phylogenetic model of diverse archaic Asian hominins distributed from southern Siberia to Southeast Asia and India. On the basis of this new model, I discuss how paleoanthropological data inform the taxonomic identity of the Denisovans and the admixture event with modern humans.

Middle to Late Pleistocene activity of the northern Matese fault system (southern Apennines, Italy)

An integrated investigation including geological, geomorphological, geophysical and structural survey, tephra analyses, 14C and 40Ar/39Ar dating, as well as paleoseismic trenching along the N-Matese fault system is presented. The study allowed the characterization of the tectonic mobility of this structure as well as the associated Bojano basin sedimentary-tectonic evolution since the early Middle Pleistocene, providing also new clues concerning the fault historical activity and the associated Mw>6.5 earthquakes. We have found lines of evidence for >1mm/yr slip rate along the presently buried Bojano fault during the mid Middle Pleistocene, and similar rates for the main fault segments paralleling the Matese flanks. The buried Bojano fault significantly slowed down during the last 300kyr, ceasing its activity before the Holocene. In turn, the segments outcropping along the Matese flanks reactivated at the onset of Late Pleistocene, after a long period of quiescence (480–110ka), with robust slip rates that would seem even accelerating in post LGM times. Paleoseismic data suggest the occurrence of four Mw>6.6 earthquakes in the past 3ka, three of which match the little known 280 BC event, and the devastating 1456 and 1805 earthquakes.

Patterns of Quaternary uplift of the Corinth rift southern border (N Peloponnese, Greece) revealed by fluvial landscape morphometry

The Rift of Corinth is a world-class example of young active rifting and, as such, is an ideal natural laboratory of continental extension. However, though much investigated for two decades, several aspects of the mechanisms at work are still poorly understood. The aim of this paper is a detailed morphometric study of the fluvial landscape response to the tectonic uplift of the rift southern shoulder in order to reconstruct the rift's Quaternary evolution, with special attention to timing, location, and intensity of uplift episodes. Based on the use of a large set of catchment and long profile metrics complemented by the new R/SR integrative approach of the regional drainage network, we identified three distinct episodes of uplift of the northern Peloponnese coastal tract, of which the intermediate one, dated around 0.35–0.4Ma, is only recorded in the topography of the central part of the rift shoulder, and the youngest one appears to have propagated from east to west over the last 10–20ka. While net uplift remained minimum in the eastern part of the study area during the whole Quaternary, it shows a clear maximum in the central part of the rift shoulder since 0.4Ma and an eastward shift of this maximum in recent times. Maximum uplift rates calculated from the morphometric data are of >1.05 and 2–5mmyear−1 for, the mid-Middle Pleistocene and Holocene uplift episodes, respectively. The morphometric evidence reveals an onshore uplift history remarkably consistent with the rift evolution reconstructed from other data sets. In the long term, it shows a stable pattern of maximum activity in the central part of the rift, confirming previous conclusions about the absence of rift propagation. In the short term, it sheds light on a possible E–W migration of the zone of recent uplift, suggesting that in the near future fault activity and seismic hazard might concentrate in the Heliki–Aegion area, at the western tip of this uplift wave.

The Punta Lucero Quarry site (Zierbena, Bizkaia): a window into the Middle Pleistocene in the Northern Iberian Peninsula

The period between the end of the Early Pleistocene and the mid-Middle Pleistocene (roughly between 1.0 and 0.4 Ma BP) is of great interest in Western Europe. It witnessed several climatic oscillations and changes in the fauna, the demise of a hominin species and the appearance of another, along with important cultural and technological changes. Thus, the few available sites with these chronologies is vital to the understanding of the tempo and mode of these changes. Middle Pleistocene sites in the Northern Iberian Peninsula are very rare. Here we present the study of the site found at the Punta Lucero Quarry (Biscay province, Northern Iberian Peninsula), which includes for the first time the complete collection from the site. The fossil association from this site includes several ungulates, such as a Megacerine deer, Cervus elaphus, large bovids (likely both Bos primigenius and Bison sp. are present), Stephanorhinus sp., and carnivores, such as Homotherium latidens, Panthera gombaszoegensis, Canis mosbachensis and Vulpes sp. This association is typical of a middle Middle Pleistocene chronology and would be the oldest macro-mammal site in the Eastern Cantabrian region. This site would likely correspond to a chronology after Mode 1 technological complex and before the arrival of Mode 2 technology in this region. Thus, it offers a glimpse into the paleoecological conditions slightly prior to or contemporaneous with the first Acheulian makers in the northern fringe of the Iberian Peninsula.

The first archaic Homo from Taiwan.

Recent studies of an increasing number of hominin fossils highlight regional and chronological diversities of archaic Homo in the Pleistocene of eastern Asia. However, such a realization is still based on limited geographical occurrences mainly from Indonesia, China and Russian Altai. Here we describe a newly discovered archaic Homo mandible from Taiwan (Penghu 1), which further increases the diversity of Pleistocene Asian hominins. Penghu 1 revealed an unexpectedly late survival (younger than 450 but most likely 190–10 thousand years ago) of robust, apparently primitive dentognathic morphology in the periphery of the continent, which is unknown among the penecontemporaneous fossil records from other regions of Asia except for the mid-Middle Pleistocene Homo from Hexian, Eastern China. Such patterns of geographic trait distribution cannot be simply explained by clinal geographic variation of Homo erectus between northern China and Java, and suggests survival of multiple evolutionary lineages among archaic hominins before the arrival of modern humans in the region.

Middle Pleistocene hominin teeth from Longtan Cave, Hexian, China.

Excavations at the Longtan Cave, Hexian, Anhui Province of Eastern China, have yielded several hominin fossils including crania, mandibular fragments, and teeth currently dated to 412±25 ka. While previous studies have focused on the cranial remains, there are no detailed analyses of the dental evidence. In this study, we provide metric and morphological descriptions and comparisons of ten teeth recovered from Hexian, including microcomputed tomography analyses. Our results indicate that the Hexian teeth are metrically and morphologically primitive and overlap with H. ergaster and East Asian Early and mid-Middle Pleistocene hominins in their large dimensions and occlusal complexities. However, the Hexian teeth differ from H. ergaster in features such as conspicuous vertical grooves on the labial/buccal surfaces of the central incisor and the upper premolar, the crown outline shapes of upper and lower molars and the numbers, shapes, and divergences of the roots. Despite their close geological ages, the Hexian teeth are also more primitive than Zhoukoudian specimens, and resemble Sangiran Early Pleistocene teeth. In addition, no typical Neanderthal features have been identified in the Hexian sample. Our study highlights the metrical and morphological primitive status of the Hexian sample in comparison to contemporaneous or even earlier populations of Asia. Based on this finding, we suggest that the primitive-derived gradients of the Asian hominins cannot be satisfactorily fitted along a chronological sequence, suggesting complex evolutionary scenarios with the coexistence and/or survival of different lineages in Eurasia. Hexian could represent the persistence in time of a H. erectus group that would have retained primitive features that were lost in other Asian populations such as Zhoukoudian or Panxian Dadong. Our study expands the metrical and morphological variations known for the East Asian hominins before the mid-Middle Pleistocene and warns about the possibility that the Asian hominin variability may have been taxonomically oversimplified.

Climate-controlled river terrace formation in the Kızılırmak Valley, Cappadocia section, Turkey: Inferred from Ar–Ar dating of Quaternary basalts and terraces stratigraphy

This study was carried out on the Cappadocia section of the Kızılırmak river valley, the longest river completely within the borders of Turkey (1355 km). A staircase of fifteen terraces found in the valley is maintained against erosion at elevations up to 160 m above the current river level. The Gülşehir–Karaburna Quatenary Basalts (four basalt flows), which cap four terraces, were numerically dated for the first time using the Ar–Ar technique. The Evren Ridge Basalt (β1), + 160 m above the river level and capping Terrace 1, was dated to 1989.4 ± 38.9 ka. The Karaburna Basalt Plateau (β2) is + 128 m above the river level and caps Terrace 4, and was dated to 1228.2 ± 46.4 ka. The Tuzköy Basalt Plateau (β3), + 29 m above the river level and capping Terrace 12, was dated to 403.8 ± 9.8 ka, and the Karnıyarık Hill Basalts (β4) at + 4.5 m above the river level and capping Terrace 15 were dated to 96.0 ± 13.0 ka. These basalt ages provide minimum ages for the underlying fluvial deposits. On the one hand, these data show that Kızılırmak River incised its valley by 160 m during the last ~ 2 Ma of its evolution. On the other hand, by using terrace sequences and basalt ages, the time-averaged incision rate of the river during the last 2 Ma was determined as approximately 0.08 mm/a − 1 , but important variations within that time span are also apparent. The highest incision rate during this period was determined to be 0.12 mm/a − 1 between the late Early and mid Middle Pleistocene. From the numerical chronology, terrace stratigraphy and paleosol records, it is suggested that the main incision phases of the Kızılırmak River led to terrace formation during the cold periods and the deposition phases occurred during the warm periods (including cold–warm transitions). As a result of assigning terraces to marine oxygen isotope stages, it was inferred that nearly all terrace levels had formed during the eccentricity-driven climate cycles, in association with high uplift rates, which were interpreted as being complete in the valley.