Mid-hills Of Nepal Research Articles

Impact of agroforestry intervention on carbon stock and soil quality in mid-hills of Nepal

Traditionally, planting trees on agricultural land including livestock is a very common practice in the mid-hills of Nepal. Trees on farms fulfill the demand for fuel wood/timber including fodder used to feed the livestock. Animal urine/dung is used as a bio-fertilizer that increases soil fertility. However, very few studies have been conducted on assessing carbon (C) stock and soil quality in agroforestry systems. This study was carried out to estimate the C stock and soil quality in agroforestry and agricultural land in the Kaski district of Nepal. Silvo-horto-agro system and agricultural land were selected from Site 1 (900–1000 m and west) and Site 2 (700–800 m and west). Total C stock was higher in the agroforestry at Site 1 (98.57 t ha−1) than agroforestry at Site 2 (64.73 t ha−1). Soil organic C, pH, and available potassium were higher in agroforestry than agriculture sites. Total nitrogen was higher in agroforestry than agriculture at Site 1. Available phosphorus was higher in agriculture than agroforestry at Site 1. Soil quality index (SQI) was good (0.8) and fair (0.6) in agroforestry and agriculture at Site 1. SQI was fair (0.6) in agroforestry and poor (0.5) in agriculture at Site 2. Altogether, the application of farmyard manure and vermi-compost including the higher vegetation density contributes to enhancing the soil quality in agroforestry systems. Further research on C stock including various soil quality indices is necessary under various kinds of agroforestry systems for a better understanding of their contribution towards climate change mitigation.

Hydrogen Cyanamide: A Chemical to Prepone Natural Budburst Timing of Grapevine Cultivars in Nepalese Context

Grapes primarily belongs to mediterranean climate but overtime due to successful vine management practices, its cultivation has been extended to sub-tropics and tropics. In Nepal, grape cultivation has been started about 8 decades ago, and the demand of this crop has been increasing every year. However, the critical challenge of heavy rainfall coinciding with the berry harvest period has limited the production window, necessitating innovative solutions. This study explores the potential of grape cultivation in Nepal by assessing significance of hydrogen cyanamide (HC) application to ensure early and uniform budburst and therefore fruit maturity before monsoon. Winter pruning and HC application at 2-5% concentration has been found effective in preponing budburst and maturity in some grapes varieties ‘Steuben’ and ‘Cabernet Sauvignon’ in Nepal, but the results depend on date and dose of HC application in particular variety and specific growing condition. Application of HC at 2% concentration has resulted in earlier budburst by about 3 weeks in var. Cabernet Sauvignon in Dhading, Nepal. Also, the earlier treatment of HC and pruning in comparison to normal time of pruning (December 15 to January 15) has resulted in earlier and higher budburst and observed fruitfulness in varieties like ‘Steuben’ and ‘Cabernet Sauvignon’ in warm temperate belt of Nepal. Thus, the study concludes the prepone of natural budburst is a must need practice for successful viticulture in terai and mid-hills of Nepal. It also emphasizes the need of more research to optimize the application of HC and ensure its efficacy in advancing budburst and maturity specific to variety and locality. Overall, the findings aim to inspire growers, enhance commercial viability, and contribute valuable insights to the viticulture sector in Nepal.

Taper functions to predict the upper stem diameter of Chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) in the mid-hills of Nepal

A function that predicts the upper stem diameters of an individual tree is helpful in better quantifying the volume and devising sustainable management of commercially and ecologically important species. This study compares three forms of the taper equation (single, variable-exponent, and segmented) using destructive sample data collected from 80 Chir pine (Pinus roxburghii Sarg.) trees across three adjacent stands in the Mid hills of Nepal. A mixed-effects modeling approach was used to evaluate the 13 different taper functions, selecting the best parameter association with the random effect to avoid overparameterization. Additionally, these models were fitted to minimize errors by modeling correlation structure with continuous autoregressive correlation structure of order 1 (corCAR1) and variance with a power variance function. All models were statistically significant at 5% level in the likelihood ratio test when compared with the models fitted without these error minimization. Furthermore, model performance (root mean square error, mean absolute error, and pseudo-R2) was evaluated using k-fold cross-validation procedure. Although all taper functions described more than 95% of the variation in upper stem diameter prediction, the single-form models of Bennett and Swindel (1972) and Amidon (1984), the variable-exponent model form of Sharma and Zhang (2004), and the segmented model form of Max and Burkhart (1976) explained more than 98% percent of the variability. Residual diagnostics indicated that Sharma and Zhang's (2004) model provided better constant and minimum errors in predicting the upper stem diameter along the 8 to 20 m stem length, whereas other models exhibited higher residual errors. Despite model's better performance, variability along the upper stem diameter prediction would affect its applicability in estimating the volume at any merchantable height of individual trees.

Drought tolerance screening of maize accessions at early growth stage in the mid-hills of Nepal

Drought tolerance screening of maize accessions at early growth stage in the mid-hills of Nepal

Identifying risk zones and landscape features that affect common leopard depredation.

Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) is a pressing issue worldwide but varies by species over time and place. One of the most prevalent forms of HWC in the mid-hills of Nepal is human-common-leopard conflict (HLC). Leopard attacks, especially in forested areas, can severely impact villagers and their livestock. Information on HLC in the Gorkha district was scarce, thus making it an ideal location to identify high-risk zones and landscape variables associated with such events. Registered cases were collected and reviewed from the Division Forest Office (DFO) during 2019-2021. Claims from DFO records were confirmed with herders and villagers via eight focus group discussions. To enhance modeling success, researchers identified a total of 163 leopard attack locations on livestock, ensuring a minimum distance of at least 100 meters between locations. Using maximum entropy (MaxEnt) and considering 13 environmental variables, we mapped common leopard attack risk zones. True Skill Statistics (TSS) and area under receiver-operator curve (AUC) were used to evaluate and validate the Output. Furthermore, 10 replications, 1,000 maximum iterations, and 1000 background points were employed during modeling. The average AUC value for the model, which was 0.726 ± 0.021, revealed good accuracy. The model performed well, as indicated by a TSS value of 0.61 ± 0.03. Of the total research area (27.92 km2), about 74% was designated as a low-risk area, 19% as a medium-risk area, and 7% as a high-risk area. Of the 13 environmental variables, distance to water (25.2%) was the most significant predictor of risk, followed by distance to road (16.2%) and elevation (10.7%). According to response curves, the risk of common leopard is highest in the areas between 1.5 to 2 km distances from the water sources, followed by the closest distance from a road and an elevation of 700 to 800 m. Results suggest that managers and local governments should employ intervention strategies immediately to safeguard rural livelihoods in high-risk areas. Improvements include better design of livestock corrals, insurance, and total compensation of livestock losses. Settlements near roads and water sources should improve the design and construction of pens and cages to prevent livestock loss. More studies on the characteristics of victims are suggested to enhance understanding of common leopard attacks, in addition to landscape variables. Such information can be helpful in formulating the best management practices.

Factors affecting awareness on good agriculture practices among citrus growers in Palpa, Nepal: Through binary logistic regression approach

Being an indigenous high-value commodity, with significant market demand in the mid-hills of Nepal, citrus requires the incorporation of sustainable techniques in orchard to increase fruit production. For farmers in Nepal, Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) is a novel concept. The majority of farmers are unaware of it, and those who are aware also have not fully embraced the techniques. Therefore, the study was conducted in summer 2022 to assess the factors that affect the awareness of GAP among the farmers at Palpa, Nepal. Rainadevi Chahara and Ribdikot rural municipality of Palpa district, Nepal was purposively selected, and altogether, 64 commercial citrus growers from the municipalities were taken by simple random sampling technique. The binary logistic regression model was used for analyzing the effect of different variables on the awareness of GAP among citrus growers. Different demographic and socioeconomic variables have been found associated for odds of being GAP aware. The findings revealed that, farmers’ who are GAP aware have an access to trainings and contact with extension agents, 4.164 and 10.293 times higher than those farmers who are GAP unaware respectively. Therefore, the study suggests that farmers knowledge on GAP can be further expanded through trainings and frequent contact with extension agents as they are the major factors affecting commercial citrus growers’ awareness to GAP in Palpa district, Nepal.

Water quality, criticality, and sustainability of mountain springs-a case study from the Nepal Himalaya.

In the hilly terrain of Nepal, springs are the main source of drinking water. With the increasing population, rapid urbanization, and unabated climate change, springs are under the risk of survival. There is increasing evidence that springs in the mid-hills of Nepal are drying up, or are reducing in discharge, or are deteriorating by water quality. As a result, local communities are facing unprecedented water stress. On this background scenario, assessment of water quality of the springs in the Marin Watershed of Sindhuli district of Nepal was carried out in this study. Spring water samples were collected during the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon of 2020 and their hydrochemistry was analyzed. Further, springs' discharge was measured in situ and their criticality and sustainability were studied through community interaction. Results have revealed seasonal variation in spring discharge and spring water quality. Out of 39 flowing springs, water quality of 13, 8, and 6 springs, respectively, was very poor, poor, and unsuitable for drinking in the pre-monsoon. The count of springs with very poor, poor, and unsuitable drinking water quality during the post-monsoon was 8, 3, and 1, respectively. Occurrence of pathogenic bacteria (Escherichia coli) was identified in five spring samples which makes the spring water unsafe for drinking. Again, out of 51 springs studied, 12 are already dried up, and another 12 of the 39 flowing springs have become seasonal with very low discharge (0.03-0.07 L/s). The study highlights and emphasizes the need to protect the flowing springs and rejuvenate the dying springs of the Himalaya and of other parts of the world.

Marketing and Value Chain Analysis of Mandarin at Jorayal Rural Municipality of Doti, Nepal

The yearly decline in mandarin production, one of the important citrus fruit in the mid-hills of Nepal could be attributed to underdeveloped and non-systematic market and lack of value-chain participation by farmers leading to low profitability and hence reducing their motivation. So, this research explores market and value chain of mandarin sub-sector through survey of 100 households from Jorayal rural municipality of Doti district using semi-structured questionnaires. Results showed that the average production of selected mandarin farmers is 1.8 Mt with income of Rs. 24,059 but considering family labor gross margins are negative. The dominant marketing channel is FarmersàCollectors, with around 92% of sales volume. Among the different types of collectors, local ones are dominant market players although price offered is higher for those coming from outside the district (Rs.58/kg) compared to local collectors (Rs. 50/kg), with producer's share being 40% and 35%, respectively. Monopoly of local collectors is high but for local relationship farmers are compelled to sell to them. Due to remoteness of the area, there are low/no value chain actors and hence marketing efficiency is also low. The major problem in marketing is found to be the low market price along with the unavailability of storage facilities or collection centers. Low networking of farmers is also contributing to reduction of the marketing efficiency and hence they are found not to be interested to scale-up their mandarin farms. Cooperative marketing may be one of the best options to increase the bargaining power of small-scale and scattered farmers.

Diversity and Distribution of 100 Plant Species of a Community Managed Forest from the Mid-Hills of Nepal: A Phytosociological Approach

Phytosociology is the study of interrelationship among plant species which classifies the vegetation in a meaningful manner. The aim of this study was to study diversity and distribution of plant species in Gobankholi Community Forest in the Mid-Hills of Nepal which is dominated by Pinus roxburghii. Trees were enumerated in a 400 sq. m. plot, shrubs and climber in a 100 sq. m plot and herbs in a 4 sq. m. plot. Density, frequency, abundance, and important value index of individual species were calculated. Similarly, Simpson's diversity index, Shannon’s diversity index, and Pielou's evenness index were also calculated, based on life form viz. herbs, shrubs and trees. 66 herbs, 8 Pteridophytes, 8 shrubs, 3 climbers and 15 trees were found, among a total of 100 species. The rare orchid, Satyrium nepalense, was found at an altitude of 1275 m a.s.l. Herbs were more diverse and even than trees, shrubs and climbers. Aleuritopteris bicolor, Colebrookea oppositifolia and Pinus roxburghii were the most dominant herb, shrub and tree respectively.

Assessment the Goat Value Chain in Mid Hills of Nepal

Goat value chain development and analysis is a recently introduced activity for enabling goat production activities to link to the market network. In Nepal, goat production is repeatedly reported rather traditional than commercial. The production volume of goat is the main drawback of goat value chain development in Nepal. Despite the visible market opportunities in the meat sub-sectors, the country has been unable to take advantage of the situation for various reasons. Some of the reasons include production constraints compounded by farmers' socioeconomic and institutional issues and their relationship with the market as a driving force. The study was conducted in six districts (Rolpa, Rukum, Salyan, Pyuthan, Gulmi and Argakhachi) using participatory value chain analysis tools as well as households survey. Total 120 goat producer households survey was done in six districts whereas 30 goat collectors, 30 wholesalers’/regional traders and 30 butchers/retailers surveyed were done. Total sample size of this value chain study of goat sub-sector was 300. It was understood that goat production system in the study area was traditional and the main drawback of value chain is the smaller production volume of goat. When market situation analyzed, it was learnt that there was no systematic marketing system attained by the farmers due to smaller production volume, though the goats contributed almost half of the livestock heads per household (6-8 heads/HH). Mainly the local breeds of goat (Khari) were reared by the farmers with some sorts of crossbreeding with improved breeds such as Jamunapari in Salyan and Rukum. Moreover, the prolificacy of goat was found poor than the average of the Khari goat, where twinning was only 50% as responded by the farmers. Likewise, the grazing system was also of traditional and goats were managed under sedentary system (semi-intensive by almost 60% farmers) and frequent feeding of concentrates in small amount was customary. The natural and traditional grazing habitats such as community forests and pasturelands were used extensively. Almost 40% of the respondents were positive to raise goats in a flock size of 15-25 in a given set of circumstances of support from the agencies, obviously larger flocks might require heavy investments for a level of family income. Later the cost of production and the existing marketing system of goat subsector was analyzed and found that the farmer’s profit is dominated by the profit of the t wholesalers and butchers, even though the profit share of farmers was almost one third of the production cost (250 NPR/kg live weight). Total market margin for live weight per kg goat was found about NRP 193 from study area to national market hubs. The market margin/profit gained by the farmers was almost 41%, 20% for local collectors, 60% for regional goat traders/wholesalers and 17% to the regional/national butchers/retailers. There is a need to follow a more integrated approach by investigating challenges and opportunities from production to consumption along a value chain, while also addressing policy and institutional aspects affecting goat production.

Who decides and how? Understanding the initiation and implementation dynamics of scientific forestry in community forests in the mid hills of Nepal

Who decides and how? Understanding the initiation and implementation dynamics of scientific forestry in community forests in the mid hills of Nepal

Charting the Course to Resilience: Hydrodynamic Modeling for Socio-economic Insights for Flood Risk Management in Nepal’s Ungauged Roshi River Catchment

Nepal, a Himalayan country with diverse topography, faces significant flood risks yearly. This study focuses on flood hazard mapping and vulnerability assessments for the Roshi River catchment (RRC), situated in the mid-hills of Nepal, by using hydrodynamic modeling and scenario-based approaches. The results obtained from probability distribution methods revealed varying flood magnitudes from 100 m3 /s to 1100 m3 /s. Inundation’s analysis showed plains near the Araniko Highway (AH42) and Panauti Municipality to be high-risk flood-prone areas. Croplands are the most susceptible, while the estimated number of people and buildings at risk varies from 4,000 to 7000 people in 1200 to 2600 buildings. Socio-economic analysis shows that a major portion of the population is from Tamang ethnicity, with relatively lower economic and educational status. Similarly, women in economically and socially disadvantaged communities are particularly at risk, emphasizing the need for increased awareness and support. Proactive flood disaster management strategies are crucial, especially for marginalized and agriculture-dependent communities. The strategically important RRC’s link to key cities, including Kathmandu, demands effective flood control measures. Hydrodynamic modeling with possible scenarios relating to socio-economic aspects can aid decision-making processes from local to central government levels to create a more resilient and disaster-resistant future for Nepal.

Estimation of soil erosion using the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) in Relation to Landslides in Mid-hills of Nepal

An attempt has been made in this research to assess soil erosion and its spatial distribution by the revised universal soil loss equation (RUSLE) model at Rangun Khola Watershed, western Nepal. The erosion factors were acquired from multiple sources (Satellite images, ALOSPALSAR DEM, SOTER soil database, Esri 2020 land cover map, rainfall database of DHM) and an integrated analysis was carried out in raster format of GIS. A landslide inventory was generated on the basis of satellite images and past literature to validate soil erosion intensity in the area. The result map of the RUSLE model was categorized into six levels based on the erosion severity, and 9.06 % of the area was found to be under extremely severe soil erosion risk (> 80 ton ha”1year”1) indicating urgent consequences. The frequency ratios for each level of potential erosion susceptible to landside exhibited a linear relationship depicting reasonable and satisfactory level of agreement between the landslide event/location data and the erosion map that validates the model result. The result of this study will be helpful to detect the sensitive zones presenting a priority of protection and offer valuable information that aids decision-makers and user agencies in creating adequate conservation planning programs to stop soil erosion and maintain the natural balance.

Goat Feed Resources and Feeding Management in Mid-Hill of Nepal

This study was commissioned to assess studies on feeding resources and feeding management of goat in mid hills of Nepal. During the study, 162 goat farms located in Ghiring and Baradi of Tanahun districts in Nepal were surveyed, and a semi-structured questionnaire was administered to each farm. Farmers in this region prefer integrating livestock raising with crop production. The majority of the farms surveyed kept indigenous Khari goats, either in pure flocks or through crossbreeding. The types of goat farming were commercial (8.02%), semi-commercial (29.01%) and subsistence (62.96%). The nature of management practices for goat farmers was intensive (70.99%), semi-intensive (14.81%) and free range (14.20%). Farmers grazed their livestock in different locations, including their own land (48.77%), forests (22.22%), and other places (29.01%). The selection of fodder species by farmers varied depending on the availability of different species in the mid hills, reflecting differences in their perception and preference. Among the top fodder species highly preferred by the farmer in summer season are Ficus cunia followed by Bauhinia longifolia, Ficus hispida, Castanopsis indica and Ficus auriculata. Fodder species highly preferred by the farmers in winter season are Litsea polyantha followed by Drepanostachyum khasianum, Shorea robusta, Terminalia elliptica and Mangifera indica. Goat production is an essential aspect of subsistence farming, providing both meat and cash income. Consequently, this study recommends promoting locally preferred tree fodder species and supplementing them with feed during different seasons, based on their availability and local preferences. Such strategies can help to improve goat production and support sustainable livelihoods for farmers in the region.
 Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 11(1): 15-24

Do Managed Hill Sal (Shorea robusta) Community Forests of Nepal Sequester and Conserve More Carbon than Unmanaged Ones?

Nepalese community forests are globally recognized for sustainable forest management and improving the livelihoods of forest-dependent communities, but their contribution to carbon sequestration in trees and soil is rarely studied. This study was performed to understand the effect of management practices on carbon stock of two community forests (CFs) - Taldanda (managed) and Dangdunge (unmanaged) - dominated by Sal (Shorea robusta) in the mid-hills of Nepal. Twenty-one concentric sample plots, each of 250 m2, were laid out in each forest to estimate different carbon pools and a stratified random sampling intensity of 0.5% used to collect data. Results showed significant (p<0.05) differences in above and below-ground biomass and carbon sequestration potential between the two CFs. The managed and unmanaged forests had total carbon stock of 269.3±27.4 and 150.0±22.7 ton/ha, respectively, demonstrating 1.79 times higher carbon stock in the former than the latter. The managed forest had significantly (p<0.05) greater mean soil organic carbon (SOC) stock than the unmanaged forest. The SOC was highest in the upper soil layer (0-10 cm), with a steady decrease as the soil depth increased. All other measured carbon pools values were higher in managed compared to unmanaged forest. The difference in carbon stock was due to the manipulation of different forest management activities, including thinning, timber extraction, fire control, grazing, and fuel wood/fodder extraction. The study suggests that the implementation of proper forest management would be necessary for enhancing carbon stock in forest trees and soils.

Why is farming important for rural livelihood security in the global south? COVID-19 and changing rural livelihoods in Nepal's mid-hills

Over the last three decades, Nepal has experienced a rapid transition in rural livelihoods, from largely subsistence farming to more diversified off-farm employment and remittances. Despite this, subsistence farming continues to be a central part of rural production. Why does farming persist in the face of other, more remunerative, off-farm employment options? In this article we argue that subsistence food production continues to be important for rural livelihood security by providing food needs from farming, thus helping households to cope with uncertainties in off-farm employment and international labor migration. Taking the COVID-19 pandemic as an example of a high level of livelihood stress, the paper provides insights and further explanations on the logic of maintaining subsistence food production as part of rural households' livelihood security. Drawing on in-depth qualitative study, complemented with a quantitative survey from eight villages in rural Nepal, we examine the impact of the pandemic on farming and off-farm activities and explore the reasons behind peoples' choice of livelihood strategies and how these vary between different social groups. We show that there was only limited impact of the dramatic disruptions caused by the global pandemic on subsistence farming, however it brought substantial challenges for emerging semi-commercial farming and off-farm incomes, including both local and migratory wage labor. During the pandemic, people increased their reliance on locally produced food, and subsistence farming served as a critical safety net. Our analysis underscores the continued importance of subsistence production amidst contemporary shifts toward off-farm employment among rural households. We also find a growing interest in semi-commercial farming among farmers with better access to land who seek state support to develop such production. This suggests that it is important for agricultural development policy to recognize and support subsistence farming alongside emerging commercial agriculture production as an integral foundation of future farming and rural livelihood security.

An assessment of good agriculture practices for safe and sustainable vegetable production in mid-hills of Nepal

The vegetable sector provides immediate income, nutrition, and food security and contributes significantly to the economy of Nepal. In recent decades, the sustainability of the vegetable sector has been challenged due to the unsystematic use of agrochemicals for commercializing production. Adopting Good Agriculture Practices (GAP) could reduce the use of agrochemicals in commercial vegetable production. This study conducted the assessment of GAP in Kathmandu Valley. A mixed-method approach, combining quantitative and qualitative methods, was adopted for the study, which included farmers' surveys, key informant interviews, and in-depth interviews. The results showed that farmers were adopting different GAP, such as cropping practices, livestock integration, soil fertility management practices, and integrated pest management practices. Upon adopting these practices, farmers reduced agrochemicals' use by more than 40%. The critical incentives for surveyed farmers to adopt GAP were soil health improvement, farmers' safety, and reduction in the use of agrochemicals while improving the farm's image. Further, the study revealed that farmers faced several challenges in adopting GAP. Management difficulty (I = 0.9) was identified as the most critical problem, followed by no premium price (I = 0.8), knowledge (I = 0.6), access to GAP inputs (I = 0.5), and other risks (I = 0.04). The study's findings imply that adopting GAP helps reduce the use of agrochemicals, consequently motivating farmers toward safe and sustainable vegetable production. The study recommends market-based solutions such as creating mass consumer awareness, ensuring premium prices with quality assurance mechanisms for making the GAP-based production profitable, and promoting its wider adoption. This is supported by facilitating farmers' access to government subsidies, price incentives, and insurance services and increasing access to GAP inputs. This study aims to generate evidence on a safe and sustainable vegetable production model that will be key to institutionalizing GAP in Nepal.

Climate change impacts and adaptation strategies in watershed areas in mid-hills of Nepal

Climate change impacts and adaptation strategies in watershed areas in mid-hills of Nepal

PLANT AND FRUIT CHARACTERIZATION OF AVOCADO (PERSEA AMERICANA MILL.) GENETIC RESOURCES IN NEPAL

Avocado is a newly emerging important fruit crop in home gardens and farms of Nepal. A total of 16 avocado accessions (HRSDAV01, HRSDAV02, HRSDAV03, HRSDAV04, HRSDAV05, HRSDAV06, HRSDAV07, HRSDAV08, HRSDAV09, HRSDAV010, HRSDAV011, HRSDAV012, HRSDAV013, HRSDAV014, HRSDAV015 and HRSDAV016) were characterized for their tree, leaf, fruit and seed traits at Horticulture Research Station (HRS), Dailekh in 2020. Tree, fruit and seed qualitative traits were characterized using the avocado descriptors of International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI). To study the fruit and seed quantitative traits, fifteen matured fruits were harvested from each accession and placed at laboratory in completely randomized design (CRD) with three replications. Results showed the wide variation in tree and leaf characters among 16 accessions. Accessions exhibited highly significant (P≤0.01) differences in fruit weight, fruit length and diameter, pulp weight and pulp/fruit ratio (%). Accessions HRSDAV07, HRSDAV06, HRSDAV09, HRSDAV03 and HRSDAV015 showed the highest pulp/fruit ratio of 83.3, 80.8, 78.8, 75.3 and 74.9%, respectively. Seed/fruit ratio was the lowest in accessions HRSDAV07 (10.9%), HRSDAV03 (12.1%), HRSDAV05 (13.4%) and HRSDAV06 (15.9%). Based on the characterization of fruit and seed traits, HRSDAV03, HRSDAV06 and HRSDAV07 are selected as the best accessions for the commercial production and breeding in avocado at mid-hills of Nepal.

Effect of Different Irrigation Patterns on Oat-Vetch Mixed Forage Production System in Rasuwa, Mid Hills of Nepal

Abstract: The scarcity of forage resources, particularly in Nepal's midhills, poses a challenge to the sustainable development of livestock production. In order to address issues, an experiment was carried out in 2020 at Kalika Municipality in Rasuwa District, Nepal, to determine the best forage combinations in terms of total dry matter productivity. With irrigation as a main plot effect, a 4*3 factorial RCB design was used with four replications. Crop species included oat (Avena sativa, Kamdhenu), common vetch (Vicia sativa), and combinations of oat and vetch within a sub plot. Irrigation treatments included none, once per month (30-day interval), twice per month (15-day interval), and three times per month (10-day interval). Temperature and precipitation data from nearby stations were taken from the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology. The first harvest was taken after 65 days of sowing (DAS), with consecutive harvests after 35 days of the initial harvest. The experimental findings revealed that the first, second, and total dry matter production were altogether found highest in the three times irrigated plot (2.47±0.25, 1.38±0.21, 3.85±0.46 respectively) and lowest in the rainfed condition (1.37±0.22, 0.69±0.12, 2.07±0.33 ton/ha respectively) with statistically highly significant result (p<0.001). The oat and vetch mixed cropping pattern had statistically higher dry matter production in the first (2.66 0.14 ton/ha), second (1.5 0.13 ton/ha), and overall average total production of (4.16 0.25 ton/ha), among the subplot effect (species). Additionally, among the subplot effects, the oat and vetch mixed cropping had the highest dry matter production in terms of first harvest yield, regrowth, and overall yield (p<0.01). Oat sole cropping could be replaced with mixed cropping of oat and vetch at a ratio of 50:50 (50:10 kg ha-1) because it produced the highest yield advantage, including forage quality. These findings provide scientific support for common vetch-oat intercropping as a sustainable approach to increase forage production with 10-day irrigation interval. These mixtures appear promising for the development of sustainable crop production with low external input and higher economic yield, and they can be used as a viable option by farmers in rainfed mid-hills of Nepal