Microvascular Hemoglobin Oxygen Saturation Research Articles

BIO2: Microcirculation Perfusion is Impaired up to 24 Hours after Veno-arterial Extracorporeal Circulation.

Extracorporeal circulation (ECC) procedures, such as extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) and cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB), are used to replace the function of the heart and lung, but they induce complications in the form of acute kidney failure, bleeding, heart arrhythmias or thromboembolic complications. This study aimed to quantify the changes in microvascular perfusion and oxygenation that occur after veno-arterial ECC (VA-ECC). Male Golden Syrian hamsters were instrumented with a dorsal window chamber to study their microcirculation and an exteriorized carotid artery catheter for blood pressure and blood gas measurements. After baseline (BL) measurements were taken, the hamster underwent surgery under isoflurane to insert a drainage catheter into the jugular vein. A heparin bolus (0.05 IU/g) was then provided, and the animal was connected to the VA-ECC circuit, which consists of a peristaltic pump and bubble trap. The VA-ECC circuit was primed with either lactated ringers (LR) or 5% human serum albumin in saline (HSA). Blood flow was ramped up over 15 minutes, maintained at 15% of the animal’s cardiac output for 60 minutes, then ramped down over 15 minutes. Sham animals underwent cannulation surgery and heparinization but were not connected to the VA-ECC circuit. The animals were surgically closed, placed on a heating pad, and allowed at least 30 minutes to wake up from the anesthetic plane before taking measurements at 1, 2, and 24 hours after VA-ECC. Results show that flow in arterioles and venules (Figure 1) at all post-ECC timepoints statistically decreased in LR and HSA groups compared to Sham. LR and HSA failed to recover flow in arterioles and venules back to BL levels post-ECC. Interestingly, venule perfusion statistically increased at 1 and 2 hrs in the HSA group compared to the LR group. Functional capillary density (FCD, Figure 2) showed a statistical reduction in capillary perfusion for both ECC groups, with the HSA group maintaining higher levels compared to the LR group. Microvascular hemoglobin (Hb) oxygen (O2) saturation (Figure 3), in venules was statistically reduced post-ECC for both LR and HSA compared to Sham and BL. The microvascular perfusion results, combined with the consistent drop in hematocrit (Hct) post-ECC suggest an imbalance in oncotic pressure that slowly rectifies after ECC. Via Starling’s law of filtration, the priming volume dilutes protein content within the blood, causing the intravascular oncotic pressure to drop, resulting in ultrafiltration at the capillary level. Additionally, the drop in venule Hb O2 saturation and the reduced microvascular perfusion suggest a reduced O2 delivery and potentially a repayment of an O2 debt post-ECC. This study shows that microvascular sequelae could potentially cause ischemic injury in ECC procedures, which can lead to organ damage and inflammation.Figure 1. Microcirculatory hemodynamics. Diameter, velocity, and volumetric blood flow are shown from top to bottom, while arterioles (Sham: n = 38, LR: n = 33; HSA: n = 33) and venules (Sham: n = 38, LR: n = 30, HSA: n = 33) are shown from the left to right columns. All values are normalized to baseline (BL, before ECC) measurements for each vessel. * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01, *** P < 0.001, **** P < 0.0001 between groups at each timepoint. † P<0.05 compared to BL, within each group.Figure 2. Functional capillary density (FCD). * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01, *** P < 0.001, **** P < 0.0001 between groups. † P<0.05 compared to baseline (BL). N = 6 for all groups.Figure 3. Microvascular Hemoglobin Oxygen Saturation Changes. The top row shows arterioles (Sham: n = 19, LR: n = 13, HSA: n = 16), while the bottom row shows venules (Sham: n = 21, LR: n = 19, HSA: n = 22). * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01, *** P < 0.001, **** P < 0.0001 between groups. † P<0.05 compared to baseline (BL).

BIO18: Hemoglobin and Heme Scavenger Proteins Reduce Free Hemoglobin During Venovenous Extracorporeal Circulation and Preserves Microvascular Function.

Extracorporeal circulation procedures often utilize a blood pump to drive flow through an external circuit, which can cause hemolysis due to high shear conditions and foreign surface contact. The purpose of this study was to determine whether priming fluids containing proteins to sequester hemoglobin (Hb) and heme could be used in venovenous extracorporeal circulation (VV-ECC) to reduce their toxicity. A day prior to the experiment, male Golden Syrian hamsters were instrumented with a dorsal window chamber to monitor the microcirculation. The day of the experiment, both jugular veins were then cannulated under isoflurane anesthesia. Baseline (BL) microvascular oxygenation was measured using a hyperspectral camera. The animals were then heparinized (2.5 IU/g) and connected to the VV-ECC circuit, consisting of a peristaltic pump and bubble trap. The ECC circuit was primed with either 5% human serum albumin (HSA), ApoHb-Hp (62.01 mg/mL), or a protein solution containing hemopexin, transferrin, and Hp (protein cocktail, 84.50 mg/mL). Haptoglobin (Hp), hemopexin, and transferrin are native proteins that bind to Hb, heme, and iron respectively. Apohemoglobin (apoHb) is a synthetic scavenger produced by removing heme from Hb. ApoHb binds to haptoglobin (Hp) forming the apoHb-Hp complex that retains its ability to bind heme and scavenge free Hb. The experiment lasted a total of 2 hrs (Table 1), in which first the animals were hemodiluted, and the flow rate through the circuit was ramped up to 50% of the animal’s cardiac output. This max flow rate was then maintained for 35 minutes before being ramped down to 0.2 mLPM. The circuit was maintained at this flow rate for 15 minutes, allowing the animal and the circuit to equilibrate before the circuit flow was stopped. While mean arterial pressure (MAP, Figure 1a) showed differences at baseline (BL) between HSA and both other groups, there was no significance observed after hemodilution and the ramp up phase of the experiment. This difference in MAP between HSA and the two other solutions returned at all timepoints after the ramp up phase. Hb oxygen saturation (sO2, Figure 2) within the microvasculature showed a drop for both arterioles and venules in both the protein cocktail and ApoHb-Hp groups at the full VV-ECC timepoint. The plasma Hb (Figure 3) for the protein cocktail and ApoHb-Hp groups were significantly lower than the HSA control from the start of VV-ECC to the equilibration stage when compared to the HSA control. These results confirm that the ApoHb and protein cocktail solutions have the capability to bind and sequester free Hb, which has the potential to reduce the extravasation of Hb from the circulatory compartment into tissues, preserves the vascular nitric oxide (NO) signaling pathway, and reduce Hb and heme toxicity. Future work is needed to determine impact on organs, especially the kidneys, and to quantify the binding efficiency of these proteins to free hemoglobin.Figure 1. Hemodynamic parameters measured via the carotid artery: a) Mean arterial pressure (MAP) and b) heart rate (HR). bl = baseline, dil = hemodilution, up = ramp up, ecc = VV-ECC at max flow rate (50% of cardiac output), down = ramp down, equ = equilibration, off = off pump. * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01, *** P < 0.001 between groups. N = 6 for all groups.Figure 2. Changes in microvascular hemoglobin oxygen saturation. The top row shows arterioles, while the bottom row shows venules. Arterioles and venules were analyzed for 4 hamsters per group. bl = baseline, dil = hemodilution, up = ramp up, ecc = VV-ECC at max flow rate (50% of cardiac output), down = ramp down, equ = equilibration, off = off pump. * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01, *** P < 0.001, **** P < 0.0001 between groups. † P<0.05 compared to baseline (BL).Figure 3. a) Hematocrit (Hct) and b) plasma hemoglobin (pHb). 0 = baseline (BL), 25 = hemodilution, 45 = VV-ECC (start), 75 = VV-ECC (end), 105 = equilibrate, 120 = off pump. * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01, *** P < 0.001, **** P < 0.0001 between groups. † P<0.05 compared to BL. Table 1. - Experimental timeline highlight the blood flow through the circuit. Baseline Hemodilution Ramp Up VV-ECC Ramp Down Equilibrate Off Pump Duration 15 min 15 min 15 min 35 min 15 min 15 min 10 min Blood Flow 0 mLPM 0.2 mLPM 0.2 mLPM → 50% CO 50% CO 50% CO → 0.2 mLPM 0.2 mLPM 0 mLPM Hyperspectral images were taken every 5 minutes. mLPM = milliliters per minute, CO = cardiac output, VV-ECC = full venovenous extracorporeal circulation.

Hyperspectral wide-field-of-view imaging to study dynamic microcirculatory changes during hypoxia.

Hyperspectral imaging (HSI) provides a fast, reliable, and noninvasive way for the study of vascular microcirculation in animal models. Rapid hyperspectral imaging of large portions of the microcirculatory preparation is critical for understanding the function and regulation of vascular microcirculatory networks. This report presents the application of an off-the-shelf benchtop HSI linear scanning system to acquire larger field-of-view images of microcirculatory preparations. The HSI line detector was displaced perpendicular to the scanning direction to map larger areas, with a rate of displacement determined by the scanning rate and the exposure time. Analysis of the collected image was used to assess dynamic changes in the microcirculation. The system records dynamic changes in microvascular hemoglobin oxygen (HbO2) saturation and vascular morphology during hypoxia and reoxygenation and has similar acquisition speeds to commonly referenced spectral-scanning HSI systems. In addition, the HbO2 saturations collected via HSI closely correlate with those collected by phosphorescence quenching microscopy. The reported system enables dynamic functional imaging of the microcirculation for broad experimental and clinical applications.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study presents a novel bench setup and algorithm to measure intravascular hemoglobin oxygen saturation in microcirculation. Wide-field hyperspectral imaging allows for rapid quantification of intravascular changes in hemoglobin saturation. The method described in this manuscript can expand the understanding of oxygen delivery to tissues in vivo.

Visible light optical coherence tomography angiography (vis-OCTA) facilitates local microvascular oximetry in the human retina.

We report herein the first visible light optical coherence tomography angiography (vis-OCTA) for human retinal imaging. Compared to the existing vis-OCT systems, we devised a spectrometer with a narrower bandwidth to increase the spectral power density for OCTA imaging, while retaining the major spectral contrast in the blood. We achieved a 100 kHz A-line rate, the fastest acquisition speed reported so far for human retinal vis-OCT. We rigorously optimized the imaging protocol such that a single acquisition took < 6 seconds with a field of view (FOV) of 3×7.8 mm2. The angiography enables accurate localization of microvasculature down to the capillary level and thus enables oximetry at vessels < 100 µm in diameter. We demonstrated microvascular hemoglobin oxygen saturation (sO2) at the feeding and draining vessels at the perifoveal region. The longitudinal repeatability was assessed by < 5% coefficient of variation (CV). The unique capabilities of our vis-OCTA system may allow studies on the role of microvascular oxygen in various retinal pathologies.

The impact of endotoxin on jejunal tissue oxygenation.

We examined the effects of systemic ETX on jejunal mucoal microcirculatory parameters in anesthetized pigs. Jejunal mucosal tissue PO2 was measured employing Clark-type surface oxygen electrodes. Oxygen saturation of jejunal microvascular hemoglobin was determined by tissue reflectance spectrophotometry. Jejunal microcirculatory blood flow was assessed by laser Doppler flowmetry. Microvascular conductance and rhythmical oscillation of the tissue PO2 were calculated. Systemic hemodynamic variables, mesenteric venous and systemic acid base and blood gas variables, and lactate measurements were recorded. Measurements were taken at BL and after Escherichia coli LPS administration in 20minutes intervals for 110minutes. ETX infusion led to a significant (P<.05) decrease of PO2 muc (from 24±4 to 8±4mmHg) and microvascular HbO2 (from 41±13 to 24±12%). Microcirculatory conductivity increased in ETX animals, microvascular blood flow remained unchanged (PU; from 228±45 to 232±58). ETX induced an increase in oscillation frequency of mucosal tissue oxygenation. Endotoxinemia resulted in a significant depression of mucosal tissue oxygenation despite a constant microcirculatory blood flow. This impairment of tissue oxygenation resulted in an increase in the vasomotion pattern in a futile attempt to counteract the undersupply of oxygen to the jejunal tissue.

Postural change in volunteers: sympathetic tone determines microvascular response to cardiac preload and output increases.

PurposeMicrovascular perfusion may be a non-invasive indicator of fluid responsiveness. We aimed to investigate which of the microvascular perfusion parameters truly reflects fluid responsiveness independent of sympathetic reflexes.MethodsFifteen healthy volunteers underwent a postural change from head up tilt (HUT) to the supine position, diminishing sympathetic tone, followed by a 30° passive leg raising (PLR) with unaltered tone. Prior to and after the postural changes, stroke volume (SV) and cardiac output (CO) were measured, as well as sublingual microcirculatory perfusion (sidestream dark field imaging), skin perfusion, and oxygenation (laser Doppler flowmetry and reflectance spectroscopy).ResultsIn responders (subjects with >10 % increase in CO), the HUT to supine change increased CO, SV, and pulse pressure, while heart rate, systemic vascular resistance, and mean arterial pressure decreased. Additionally, microvascular flow index, laser Doppler flow, and microvascular hemoglobin oxygen saturation and concentration also increased.ConclusionWhen preload and forward flow increase in association with a decrease in sympathetic activity, microvascular blood flow increases in the skin and in the sublingual area. When preload and forward flow increase with little to no change in sympathetic activity, only sublingual functional capillary density increases. Therefore, our results indicate that sublingual functional capillary density is the best parameter to use when evaluating fluid responsiveness independent of changes in sympathetic tone.

Detection of reduced interhemispheric cortical communication during task execution in multiple sclerosis patients using functional near-infrared spectroscopy.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) impairs brain activity through demyelination and loss of axons. Increased brain activity is accompanied by increases in microvascular hemoglobin oxygen saturation (oxygenation) and total hemoglobin, which can be measured using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Due to the potentially reduced size and integrity of the white matter tracts within the corpus callosum, it may be expected that MS patients have reduced functional communication between the left and right sides of the brain; this could potentially be an indicator of disease progression. To assess interhemispheric communication in MS, we used fNIRS during a unilateral motor task and the resting state. The magnitude of the change in hemoglobin parameters in the motor cortex was significantly reduced in MS patients during the motor task relative to healthy control subjects. There was also a significant decrease in interhemispheric communication between the motor cortices (expressed as coherence) in MS patients compared to controls during the motor task, but not during the resting state. fNIRS assessment of interhemispheric coherence during task execution may be a useful marker in disorders with white matter damage or axonal loss, including MS.

Evaluation of Multiple Modes of Oximetry Monitoring as an Index of Splanchnic Blood Flow in a Newborn Lamb Model of Hypoxic, Ischemic, and Hemorrhagic Stress

Early and aggressive treatment of circulatory failure is associated with increased survival, highlighting the need for monitoring methods capable of early detection. Vasoconstriction and decreased oxygenation of the splanchnic circulation are a sentinel response of the cardiovasculature during circulatory distress. Thus, we measured esophageal oxygenation as an index of decreased tissue oxygen delivery caused by three types of ischemic insult, occlusive decreases in mesenteric blood flow, and hemodynamic adaptations to systemic hypoxia and simulated hemorrhagic stress. Five anesthetized lambs were instrumented for monitoring of mean arterial pressure, mesenteric artery blood flow, central venous hemoglobin oxygen saturation, and esophageal and buccal microvascular hemoglobin oxygen saturation (StO2). The sensitivities of oximetry monitoring to detect cardiovascular insult were assessed by observing responses to graded occlusion of the descending aorta, systemic hypoxia due to decreased FIO2, and acute hemorrhage. Decreases in mesenteric artery flow during aortic occlusions were correlated with decreased esophageal StO2 (R = 0.41). During hypoxia, esophageal StO2 decreased significantly within 1 min of initiation, whereas buccal StO2 decreased within 3 min, and central venous saturation did not change significantly. All modes of oximetry monitoring and arterial blood pressure were correlated with mesenteric artery flow during acute hemorrhage. Esophageal StO2 demonstrated a greater decrease from baseline levels as well as a more rapid return to baseline levels during reinfusion of the withdrawn blood. These experiments suggest that monitoring esophageal StO2 may be useful in the detection of decreased mesenteric oxygen delivery as may occur in conditions associated with hypoperfusion or hypoxia.

Prognostic value of intraoperative renal tissue oxygenation measurement on early renal transplant function

Ischemia time is a prognostic factor in renal transplantation for postoperative graft function and survival. Kidney transplants from living donors have a higher survival rate than deceased donor kidneys probably because of shorter ischemia time. We hypothesized that measurement of intraoperative kidney oxygenation (μHbO(2) ) and microvascular perfusion predicts postoperative graft function. We measured microvascular hemoglobin oxygen saturation by reflectance spectrophotometry and microcirculatory kidney perfusion by laser Doppler flowmetry 5 and 30min after kidney reperfusion on the organ surface in 53 renal transplant patients including 19 grafts from living donors. These values were related to systemic hemodynamics, cold ischemia time (cit), early postoperative graft function and length of hospital stay. μHbO(2) improved 30 min after reperfusion compared to 5 min (from 67% to 71%, P < 0.05). μHbO(2) correlated with mean arterial blood pressure and central venous pH (P < 0.01). Most importantly, μHbO(2) was significantly higher in kidneys from living compared with deceased donors (74% vs. 63%) and in kidneys without vs. with biopsy-proven postoperative rejection (71% vs. 45%, P < 0.001). Finally, μHbO(2) correlated positively with cit and postoperative creatinine clearance and negatively with postoperative plasma creatinine, need for hemodialysis and length of hospital stay. Our results suggest higher oxygen extraction and thus oxygen demand of the grafts shortly after reperfusion. The intraoperative measurement of tissue oxygenation in kidney transplants is predictive of early postoperative graft function. Future studies should evaluate the potential effect of intraoperative therapeutic maneuvers to improve organ tissue oxygenation in renal transplantation.

Renin-angiotensin system activation correlates with microvascular dysfunction in a prospective cohort study of clinical sepsis

IntroductionMicrovascular dysregulation characterized by hyporesponsive vessels and heterogeneous bloodflow is implicated in the pathogenesis of organ failure in sepsis. The renin-angiotensin system (RAS) affects the microvasculature, yet the relationships between RAS and organ injury in clinical sepsis remain unclear. We tested our hypothesis that systemic RAS mediators are associated with dysregulation of the microvasculature and with organ failure in clinical severe sepsis.MethodsWe studied 30 subjects with severe sepsis, and 10 healthy control subjects. Plasma was analyzed for plasma renin activity (PRA) and angiotensin II concentration (Ang II). Using near-infrared spectroscopy, we measured the rate of increase in the oxygen saturation of thenar microvascular hemoglobin after five minutes of induced forearm ischemia. In so doing, we assessed bulk microvascular hemoglobin influx to the tissue during reactive hyperemia. We studied all subjects 24 hours after the development of organ failure. We studied a subset of 12 subjects at an additional timepoint, eight hours after recognition of organ failure (early sepsis).ResultsAfter 24 hours of resuscitation to clinically-defined endpoints of preload and arterial pressure, Ang II and PRA were elevated in septic subjects and the degree of elevation correlated negatively with the rate of microvascular reoxygenation during reactive hyperemia. Early RAS mediators correlated with microvascular dysfunction. Early Ang II also correlated with the extent of organ failure realized during the first day of sepsis.ConclusionsRAS is activated in clinical severe sepsis. Systemic RAS mediators correlate with measures of microvascular dysregulation and with organ failure.

Microcirculatory Parameters After Isotonic and Hypertonic Colloidal Fluid Resuscitation in Acute Hemorrhagic Shock

Volume resuscitation is one of the primary therapeutic goals in hemorrhagic shock, but data on microcirculatory effects of different colloidal fluid resuscitation regimen are sparse. We investigated sublingual mucosal microcirculatory parameters during hemorrhage and after fluid resuscitation with gelatin, hydroxyethyl starch, or hypertonic saline and hydroxyethyl starch in pigs. To induce hemorrhagic shock, 60% of calculated blood volume was withdrawn. Microvascular blood flow was assessed by laser Doppler velocimetry. Microcirculatory hemoglobin oxygen saturation was measured with a tissue reflectance spectrophotometry, and side darkfield imaging was used to visualize the microcirculation and to quantify the flow quality. Systemic hemodynamic variables, systemic acid base and blood gas variables, and lactate measurements were recorded. Measurements were performed at baseline, after hemorrhage, and after fluid resuscitation with a fixed volume regimen. Systemic hemodynamic parameters returned or even exceeded to baseline values in all three groups after fluid resuscitation, but showed significantly higher filling pressures and cardiac output values in animals treated with isotonic colloids. Microcirculatory parameters determined in gelatin and hydroxyethyl starch resuscitated animals, and almost all parameters except microvascular hemoglobin oxygen saturation in animals treated with hypertonic saline and hydroxyethyl starch, were restored after treatment. Hemorrhaged pigs can be hemodynamically stabilized with either isotonic or hypertonic colloidal fluids. The main finding is an adequate restoration of sublingual microcirculatory blood flow and flow quality in all three study groups, but only gelatin and hydroxyethyl starch improved microvascular hemoglobin oxygen saturation, indicating some inadequate oxygen supply/demand ratio maybe due to a better restoration of systemic hemodynamics in isotonic colloidal resuscitated animals.

EPOPROSTENOL IMPROVES MUCOSAL TISSUE OXYGEN TENSION IN AN ACUTE ENDOTOXEMIC PIG MODEL

The objective of the present study was to determine the effects of increasing dosages of continuously infused epoprostenol (PGI), a prostacyclin analog, on intestinal oxygen supply and jejunal mucosal tissue oxygen tension in an acute endotoxic pig model. Jejunal mucosal tissue PO2, oxygen saturation of jejunal microvascular hemoglobin, and gut microvascular blood flow were investigated. Systemic hemodynamic variables, mesenteric-venous and systemic acid base and blood gas variables, and lactate measurements were recorded. Measurements were performed at baseline, after Escherichia coli LPS administration, and at 20-min intervals during incremental PGI infusion (n = 8; 25, 50, 100, and 200microg x kg x h, respectively); or infusion of an equal amount of isotonic sodium chloride solution (n = 7). LPS infusion led to a significant decrease in mucosal tissue oxygen tension and microvascular hemoglobin oxygen saturation. Epoprostenol infusion led to a significant, dose-dependent increase in cardiac index and systemic oxygen delivery. Mucosal tissue oxygen tension and microvascular hemoglobin oxygen saturation increased after PGI administration and even returned to more-than-baseline values. Continuously infused PGI increased intestinal hemoglobin oxygen saturation and mucosal tissue oxygen tension in a dose-dependent manner mainly due to an increase in villus blood flow in this acute endotoxic pig model.

Impairments in microvascular reactivity are related to organ failure in human sepsis

Severe sepsis is a systemic inflammatory response to infection resulting in acute organ dysfunction. Vascular perfusion abnormalities are implicated in the pathology of organ failure, but studies of microvascular function in human sepsis are limited. We hypothesized that impaired microvascular responses to reactive hyperemia lead to impaired oxygen delivery relative to the needs of tissue and that these impairments would be associated with organ failure in sepsis. We studied 24 severe sepsis subjects 24 h after recognition of organ dysfunction; 15 healthy subjects served as controls. Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) was used to measure tissue 1) microvascular hemoglobin signal strength and 2) oxygen saturation of microvascular hemoglobin (StO2). Both values were measured in thenar skeletal muscle before and after 5 min of forearm stagnant ischemia. At baseline, skeletal muscle microvascular hemoglobin was lower in septic than control subjects. Microvascular hemoglobin increased during reactive hyperemia in both groups, but less so in sepsis. StO2 at baseline and throughout ischemia was similar between the two groups; however, the rate of tissue oxygen consumption was significantly slower in septic subjects than in controls. The rate of increase in StO2 during reactive hyperemia was significantly slower in septic subjects than in controls; this impairment was accentuated in those with more organ failure. We conclude that organ dysfunction in severe sepsis is associated with dysregulation of microvascular oxygen balance. NIRS measurements of skeletal muscle microvascular perfusion and reactivity may provide important information about sepsis and serve as endpoints in future therapeutic interventions aimed at improving the microcirculation.

Microvascular hemoglobin oxygen saturation (SO 2 ) during prolonged hemorrhagic hypotension (HH)

Since skeletal muscle represents up to 40% of body mass and suffers severe reductions in blood flow during HH, we examined the microcirculatory consequences of prolonged hypotension due to hemorrhage in the rat spinotrapezius muscle. An aortic transducer was implanted for continuous measurement of cardiac output. Systemic hemodynamic and respiratory variables were measured 7 days after the implantation. Functional capillary density, microvascular diameter, arteriolar SO2 and hemoglobin concentration ([Hb]) were measured using intravital microscopy. Measurements were made before and up to 4 h after HH. Additional bleeding or lactated Ringer's infusion were used to maintain mean arterial pressure at 40 mmHg. Controls were subjected to the same procedures except HH. Fifty-three percent of rats survived ≥ 3 h (S); others were considered nonsurvivors (NS). There was a positive correlation (r= 0.83, p ≤ 0.05) between microvascular SO2 and respiratory rate in S. Significant differences between S and NS were obtained for arteriolar SO2 (lower in S, p ≤ 0.05). Microvascular [Hb] was correlated with the systemic [Hb] (r= 0.93, p ≤ 0.001). Small arterioles constricted more in S than in NS, while large arterioles dilated in S. The diameter findings may explain why S showed higher total peripheral resistance levels for a longer period of time during HH. Our findings suggest that respiratory compensations and microvascular changes are essential for survival of prolonged HH. Support: DOD and NIH HL079087.

Arginine vasopressin does not alter mucosal tissue oxygen tension and oxygen supply in an acute endotoxemic pig model

To determine the effects of increasing dosages of continuously infused arginine-vasopressin (AVP) on mucosal tissue oxygen tension and oxygen supply in an auto-perfused, innervated jejunal segment in an acute endotoxic porcine model. Prospective, randomized, experimental study. University hospital animal research laboratory. Jejunal mucosal tissue PO2 was measured employing two Clark-type surface oxygen electrodes. Oxygen saturation of jejunal microvascular hemoglobin was determined by tissue reflectance spectrophotometry. Systemic hemodynamic variables, mesenteric-venous and systemic acid base and blood gas variables and lactate measurements were recorded. Measurements were performed at baseline, after E. coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS) administration and at 20 min intervals during incremental AVP infusion (n=8; 0.014, 0.029, 0.057, 0.114 and 0.229 IU kg(-1) h(-1), respectively) or infusion of saline (n =8). LPS infusion leads to a significant (P<0.05) decrease of mucosal tissue oxygen tension (PO2muc, 24+/-3 to 12+/-2 mmHg) and microvascular hemoglobin oxygen saturation (HbO2, 38+/-4 to 21+/-4%). Mesenteric venous lactate level increased (2.4+/-0.3 to 4.7+/-1.7 mmol l(-1)), while mesenteric venous pH decreased (7.38+/-0.02 to 7.26+/-0.12), indicating tissue hypoxia. AVP significantly increased mean arterial pressure (MAP, 81+/-15 to 97+/-17 at 0.057 IU kg(-1) h(-1)). No differences in jejunal mucosal oxygenation occurred between study groups at any dosage during the experimental protocol. AVP administration did not further compromise mucosal tissue oxygen tension and oxygen supply in the acute phase of endotoxic pigs.

The Effect of Nitroglycerin on Microvascular Perfusion and Oxygenation During Gastric Tube Reconstruction

Esophagectomy followed by gastric tube reconstruction is the surgical treatment of choice for patients with esophageal cancer. Complications of the cervical anastomosis are associated with impaired microvascular blood flow (MBF) and ischemia in the gastric fundus. The aim of the present study was to differentiate whether the decrease in MBF is a result of arterial insufficiency or of venous congestion. To do this we assessed MBF, microvascular hemoglobin oxygen saturation (muHbSo(2)), and microvascular hemoglobin concentration (muHbcon) simultaneously during different stages of gastric tube reconstruction. In 14 patients, MBF was determined with laser Doppler flowmetry, and muHbSo(2) and muHbcon were determined with reflectance spectro- photometry. After completion of the anastomosis, nitroglycerin was applied at the fundus. Although MBF did not change significantly in the pylorus, MBF decreased progressively during surgery in the fundus from 210 +/- 18 Arbitrary Units at baseline (normal stomach) to 52 +/- 9 Arbitrary Units after completion of reconstruction (mean +/- sem; P < 0.05). There was no change in muHbSo(2) and muHbcon during the reconstruction. After application of nitroglycerin, MBF doubled. We conclude that MBF decreases during gastric tube reconstruction but that muHbSo(2) and muHbcon do not. This decrease might be the result of venous congestion, which can partly be counteracted by application of nitroglycerin.

Arginine vasopressin reduces intestinal oxygen supply and mucosal tissue oxygen tension

We investigated intestinal oxygen supply and mucosal tissue PO2 during administration of increasing dosages of continuously infused arginine vasopressin (AVP) in an autoperfused, innervated jejunal segments in anesthetized pigs. Mucosal tissue PO2 was measured by employing two Clark-type surface oxygen electrodes. Oxygen saturation of jejunal microvascular hemoglobin was determined by tissue reflectance spectrophotometry. Microvascular blood flow was assessed by laser-Doppler velocimetry. Systemic hemodynamic variables, mesenteric venous and systemic acid-base and blood gas variables, and lactate measurements were recorded. Measurements were performed at baseline and at 20-min intervals during incremental AVP infusion (n = 8; 0.007, 0.014, 0.029, 0.057, 0.114, and 0.229 IU.kg(-1).h(-1), respectively) or infusion of saline (n=8). AVP infusion led to a significant (P < .05), dose-dependent decrease in cardiac index (from 121 +/- 31 to 77 +/- 27 ml.kg(-1).min(-1) at 0.229 IU.kg(-1).h(-1)) and systemic oxygen delivery (from 14 +/- 3 to 9 +/- 3 ml.kg(-1).min(-1) at 0.229 IU.kg(-1).h(-1)) concomitant with an increase in systemic oxygen extraction ratio (from 31 +/- 4 to 48 +/- 10%). AVP decreased microvascular blood flow (from 133 +/- 47 to 82 +/- 35 perfusion units at 0.114 IU.kg(-1).h(-1)), mucosal tissue PO2 (from 26 +/- 7 to 7 +/- 2 mmHg at 0.229 IU.kg(-1).h(-1)), and microvascular hemoglobin oxygen saturation (from 51 +/- 9 to 26 +/- 12% at 0.229 IU.kg(-1).h(-1)) without a significant increase in mesenteric venous lactate concentration (2.3 +/- 0.8 vs. 3.4 +/- 0.7 mmol/l). We conclude that continuously infused AVP decreases intestinal oxygen supply and mucosal tissue PO2 due to a reduction in microvascular blood flow and due to the special vascular supply in the jejunal mucosa in a dose-dependent manner in pigs.

Design of a visible-light spectroscopy clinical tissue oximeter

We develop a clinical visible-light spectroscopy (VLS) tissue oximeter. Unlike currently approved near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) or pulse oximetry (SpO2%), VLS relies on locally absorbed, shallow-penetrating visible light (475 to 625 nm) for the monitoring of microvascular hemoglobin oxygen saturation (StO2%), allowing incorporation into therapeutic catheters and probes. A range of probes is developed, including noncontact wands, invasive catheters, and penetrating needles with injection ports. Data are collected from: 1. probes, standards, and reference solutions to optimize each component; 2. ex vivo hemoglobin solutions analyzed for StO2% and pO2 during deoxygenation; and 3. human subject skin and mucosal tissue surfaces. Results show that differential VLS allows extraction of features and minimization of scattering effects, in vitro VLS oximetry reproduces the expected sigmoid hemoglobin binding curve, and in vivo VLS spectroscopy of human tissue allows for real-time monitoring (e.g., gastrointestinal mucosal saturation 69+/-4%, n=804; gastrointestinal tumor saturation 45+/-23%, n=14; and p<0.0001), with reproducible values and small standard deviations (SDs) in normal tissues. FDA approved VLS systems began shipping earlier this year. We conclude that VLS is suitable for the real-time collection of spectroscopic and oximetric data from human tissues, and that a VLS oximeter has application to the monitoring of localized subsurface hemoglobin oxygen saturation in the microvascular tissue spaces of human subjects.

Effects of three different resuscitation regimens on jejunal tissue oxygen supply after hemorrhagic shock

In this study we evaluated effects of blood (B; n = 7), gelatine (G; n = 8) and Ringer's lactate (R; n = 8) resuscitation on jejunal microvascular blood flow (PU), tissue microvascular hemoglobin oxygen saturation (HbO2t) and jejunal mucosal tissue oxygen tension (PO2muc) after severe haemorrhage (50% of estimated blood volume) in pigs.

Effects of norepinephrine and phenylephrine on intestinal oxygen supply and mucosal tissue oxygen tension.

To investigate effects of intravenous norepinephrine (NE) and phenylephrine (PE) on intestinal oxygen supply in an autoperfused, innervated jejunal segment. Prospective, randomized animal study in an animal research laboratory. In 24 anesthetized and normoventilated pigs a segment of the jejunal mucosa was exposed by midline laparotomy and antimesenteric incision. Mucosal oxygen tension (PO2muc; Clark-type surface oxygen electrodes), microvascular hemoglobin oxygen saturation (HbO2, tissue reflectance spectrophotometry), and microvascular blood flow (perfusion units, PU; laser Doppler velocimetry), systemic hemodynamics, mesenteric-venous acid base and blood gas variables, and systemic acid base and blood gas variables were recorded after a resting period and at 20-min intervals during infusion of NE (0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2 micrograms x kg-1 x min-1; n = 8) or PE (0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10 micrograms x kg-1 x min-1; n = 8) and in controls (n = 8) without treatment. NE infusion led to significant tachycardia, an increase in cardiac output, and systemic oxygen delivery and consumption while PE progressively increased mean arterial pressure with only small effects on systemic blood flow. NE or PE infusion did not affect mesenteric venous oxygen tension (baseline: PE 53 +/- 5, NE, 52 +/- 4.2 mmHg), mesenteric oxygen extraction ratio (baseline: PE 0.29 +/- 0.08, NE 0.3 +/- 0.06), jejunal microvascular blood flow (baseline: PE 254 +/- 127, NE 282 +/- 72 PU), PO2muc (baseline: PE 31 +/- 9.1, NE 33 +/- 11 mmHg), and HbO2 (baseline: PE 52 +/- 9.6%, NE 58 +/- 11.6%). Despite major differences in systemic hemodynamics jejunal tissue oxygen supply is not affected by progressively increasing intravenous infusion of norepinephrine and phenylephrine.