Microscope Projection Photolithography Research Articles

Optimizing the Performance of Nickel Electrocatalysts with Regular Arrays of Linear Ridge-like Features for Enhancing the Oxygen Evolution Reaction

The oxygen evolution reaction (OER) represents a major source of inefficiency in the production of green hydrogen via electrocatalytic water splitting. At high overpotentials relevant to industrial rates of gas production, bubbles can contribute substantially to these inefficiencies by inhibiting the mass transport of electrolyte and partially obstructing the electrochemically active surface area (Aecsa) of an electrode.1 Arrays of microscale features have been shown to improve the efficiency of gas evolving reactions, including the OER. The performance of electrodes modified with linear ridge-like surface features has been previously observed to increase with the spacing between the ridges with a separation of up to 200 µm, but it was not known whether this trend continues indefinitely.2 The present study utilizes rapid prototyping techniques, including microscope projection photolithography and electrodeposition, to determine whether an optimal ridge separation exists between 200 and 450 µm. At a relatively high overpotential of 1.8 V (vs Hg/HgO) in an alkaline electrolyte, the performance of these ridges was observed to increase up to a critical separation, after which the performance decreased to a level comparable to a planar electrode at a wider separation between the ridges. Chronoamperometry measurements indicated that ridges with this optimal spacing attained a current response nearly 3× that of a planar electrode when normalized to (Aecsa). A better understanding of the reasons for this observed trend was pursued using high speed imaging. Direct observations of bubble production on the surfaces of the electrodes provided a deeper understanding of how the distribution of gas bubbles on an electrode affects performance.

Microscale Contacts for Nanowire Characterization Using Microscope Projection Photolithography

Microscale Contacts for Nanowire Characterization Using Microscope Projection Photolithography

Feature size below 100 nm realized by UV-LED-based microscope projection photolithography

Feature size below 100 nm realized by UV-LED-based microscope projection photolithography

Microscope projection photolithography based on liquid crystal microdisplay

We developed a microdisplay-based microscope projection photolithography (MDMPP) technique in which a liquid crystal (LC) microdisplay is used as a reconfigurable photomask for a microscope projector. The LC microdisplay provides a significant advantage in terms of cost and speed since patterns can be generated through software instead of redesigning and fabricating glass photomasks. The constructed MDMPP system could produce line patterns as narrow as 2.4 µm, smaller than that specified by the diffraction limit, with the aid of a 4× objective lens. The achievement of a linewidth smaller than the theoretical limit may be ascribed to a combination of overexposure and the underetching effect, in addition to the good optical performance of the system. In a diffraction experiment performed with fabricated slits, the application of the MDMPP technique helped provide various patterns of the slits, demonstrating the potential usefulness of the MDMPP system in undergraduate optics courses. We expect that MDMPP can contribute to the field of physics education and various areas of research, such as chemistry and biology, in the future.

Experimental Demonstration of Surface Plasmon Polaritons Reflection and Transmission Effects.

Special integrated photonic surface structures composed of a dielectric semicircle ridge and a dielectric block placed on a metal substrate are proposed for the investigation of surface plasmon polariton (SPP) reflection and transmission effects. A fabrication method called microscope projection photolithography was employed for the preparation of the structures. Leakage radiation microscopy was applied for the excitation and observation of surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs). It was observed that SPPs exhibit a remarkable decrease in intensity when impinging onto the rectangular dielectric block. Nevertheless, the transmitted wave out of the dielectric block was always observable. The propagation behavior of both the reflected waves at two boundaries (air/dielectric and dielectric/air) and the transmitted wave inside the dielectric block were demonstrated for different SPP incident conditions. The variation of the angles of reflection and transmission with respect to the incident angle was analytically and experimentally investigated. An agreement between the calculated results and the experimental results was obtained. Our findings might allow for novel applications in sensing and analytics once the structures will be functionalized.

Microscope projection photolithography based on ultraviolet light-emitting diodes

We adapted a conventional microscope for projection photolithography using an ultraviolet (UV) light-emitting diode (LED) as a light source. The use of a UV LED provides the microscope projector with several advantages in terms of compactness and cost. The adapted microscope was capable of producing line patterns as wide as 5 μm with the use of a 4X objective lens under optimal lithography conditions. The obtained line width is close to that of the diffraction limit, implying that the line width can be reduced further with the use of a higher resolution photomask and higher magnification objective lens. Finally, we showed how the single slit fabricated by microscope projection photolithography was used for a diffraction experiment. We expect that low-cost microscope projection photolithography based on a UV LED will contribute to the field of physics education or various areas of research, such as chemistry and biology, in the future.

Spatio-Temporal Control of Cellular Dynamics using a Cell-Friendly Photoresist

Many biological processes in multi-cellular organisms are regulated by various dynamic cellular processes. However, classical tissue culture system can only provide static environments where many dynamic events occur randomly, thus mechanistic study of dynamics of cellular dynamics has been limited. To overcome this limitation, we developed new experimental platforms where we can precisely position different types of cells and control their movement by illuminating light to predefined areas. A thin film of a cell-friendly photoresist PDMP (poly(2,2-dimethoxy nitrobenzyl methacrylate-r-methyl methacrylate-r-poly(ethylene glycol) methacrylate) was used. Upon UV exposure, PDMP thin films become soluble in near-neutral aqueous buffers such as PBS and tissue culture media with minimal cytotoxicity. To create micro-patterns on PDMP thin film, microscope projection photolithography (MPP) technique was used. By performing series of MPP on PDMP thin films and sequentially depositing cells on UV-irradiated regions, we could successfully create single cell arrays of adhering cells. Then, various dynamic cellular processes such as cell spreading, adherens junction formation, and collective cell migration were triggered by removing PDMP thin films surrounding cells in single cell arrays by UV illumination. Using this new dynamic cell-patterning technique in conjunction with an automated microscope equipped with a motorized stage, dynamics of each cellular process was imaged in high-throughput manners to collect large amounts of data in a single experiment. This method can be useful for screening drugs targeting dynamic processes of cells.

All-polymer arrayed waveguide grating at 850 nm: design, fabrication, and characterization.

In this Letter, a novel all-polymer arrayed waveguide grating (AWG) device with an operating wavelength around 850nm is reported. The all-polymer AWG consists of polymer ridge waveguides fabricated on a thin poly(methyl methacrylate) foil via microscope projection photolithography. The developed device is suitable to be integrated into optical circuits, e.g., a planar polymer foil and, along with other optical integrated devices, to be used for different sensing applications. The functionality of the device is demonstrated by using a fiber Bragg grating sensor and performing strain measurements.

Real‐Time PEGDA‐Based Microgel Generation and Encapsulation in Microdroplets

Herein, a method is reported that combines droplet‐based microfluidics and microscope projection photolithography for the generation of poly ethylene glycol diacrylate microgels and their encapsulation within pL‐volume droplets. By implementing continuous‐flow photolithography in the vicinity of a cross junction, the real‐time generation and in situ encapsulation of fiber‐like structures within pL‐volume aqueous microdroplets is demonstrated. The effect of UV excitation is assessed at varying distances from the cross junction for both constant and pulsed UV excitation modes, as a route to controlling microfiber length. Finally, UV excitation within trapped droplets is explored and how the combination of the two techniques can lead to the generation of 3D patterned microstructures is demonstrated, opening new avenues for the rapid generation of inner scaffolding of artificial cell facsimiles.

Stop-flow Lithography to Continuously Fabricate Microlens Structures Utilizing an Adjustable Three-Dimensional Mask

Stop-flow lithography (SFL) is a microfluidic-based particle synthesis method, in which photolithography with a two dimensional (2D) photomask is performed in situ within a microfluidic environment to fabricate multifunctional microstructures. Here, we modified the SFL technique by utilizing an adjustable electrostatic-force-modulated 3D (EFM-3D) mask to continuously fabricate microlens structures for high-throughput production. The adjustable EFM-3D mask contains a layer filled with a UV-absorbing liquid and transparent elastomer structures in the shape of microlenses between two conductive glass substrates. An acrylate oligomer stream is photopolymerized via the microscope projection photolithography, where the EFM-3D mask was set at the field-stop plane of the microscope, thus forming the microlens structures. The produced microlens structures flow downstream without adhesion to the polydimethysiloxane (PDMS) microchannel surfaces due to the existence of an oxygen-aided inhibition layer. Microlens structures with variations in curvature and aperture can be produced by changing objective magnifications, controlling the morphology of the EFM-3D mask through electrostatic force, and varying the concentration of UV-light absorption dyes. We have successfully demonstrated to produce microlens structures with an aperture ranging from 50 μm to 2 mm and the smallest focus spot size of 0.59 μm. Our proposed method allows one to fabricate microlens structures in a fast, simple and high-throughput mode for application in micro-optical systems.

Complex micropatterning of proteins within microfluidic channels.

Microfluidic channels containing protein micropatterned surfaces are useful in many bioanalytical and biological applications. In this study, we developed a new method to integrate microfluidics and protein micropatterning by attaching poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) microfluidic channels to bio-friendly photoresist films via poly(dopamine) (PDA) adhesive. A bio-friendly photoresist poly(2,2-dimethoxy nitrobenzyl methacrylate-r-methyl methacrylate-r-poly(ethylene glycol) methacrylate) (PDMP) was synthesized and used. By performing microscope projection photolithography (MPP) to the PDMP thin films within PDMS microchannels, complex micropatterns of proteins were successfully generated within microfluidic channels.

Dynamic Modulation of Small-Sized Multicellular Clusters Using a Cell-Friendly Photoresist

Dynamics of small-sized multicellular clusters is important for many biological processes including embryonic development and cancer metastasis. Previous methods to fabricate multicellular clusters depended on stochastic adhesion and proliferation of cells on defined areas of cell-adhering islands. This made precise control over the number of cells within multicellular clusters impossible. Variation in numbers may have minimal effects on the behavior of multicellular clusters composed of tens of cells but would have profound effects on groups with fewer than ten cells. Herein, we report a new dynamic cell micropatterning method using a cell-friendly photoresist film by multistep microscope projection photolithography. We first fabricated single cell arrays of partially spread cells. Then, by merging neighboring cells, we successfully fabricated multicellular clusters with precisely controlled number, composition, and geometry. Using this method, we generated multicellular clusters of Madin-Darby canine kidney cells with various numbers and initial geometries. Then, we systematically investigated the effect of multicellular cluster sizes and geometries on their motility behaviors. We found that the behavior of small-sized multicellular clusters was not sensitive to initial configurations but instead was determined by dynamic force balances among the cells. Initially, the multicellular clusters exhibited a rounded morphology and minimal translocation, probably due to contractility at the periphery of the clusters. For 2-cell and 4-cell clusters, single leaders emerged over time and entire groups aligned and comigrated as single supercells. Such coherent behavior did not occur in 8-cell clusters, indicating a critical group size led by a single leader may exist. The method developed in the study will be useful for the study of collective migration and multicellular dynamics.

PDMS bonding to a bio-friendly photoresist via self-polymerized poly(dopamine) adhesive for complex protein micropatterning inside microfluidic channels

Protein micropatterned surfaces integrated with microfluidics are useful in numerous bioanalytical and biological applications. In this study, we demonstrated the fabrication of complex protein micropatterned surfaces within poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) microfluidic channels by attaching the PDMS channels to bio-friendly photoresist films and subsequently performing microscope projection photolithography (MPP). A muscle-inspired poly(dopamine) (PDA) coating was employed to mediate the bonding between the PDMS and the bio-friendly photoresist poly(2,2-dimethoxy nitrobenzyl methacrylate-r-methyl methacrylate-r-poly(ethylene glycol) methacrylate) (PDMP). By adjusting the dip-coating time for the PDA coating, we could successfully introduce sufficient amounts of functional groups on the PDMP surfaces to mediate strong bonding between the PDMS channels and the PDA-coated PDMP thin films with minimal alteration of the surface properties of the PDMP thin films that are critical for protein micropatterning. Using this novel bonding strategy, we successfully fabricated multiple protein micropatterns and gradient micropatterns of proteins within microfluidic channels. The technique developed in this study will be useful for the fabrication of complex biochips for multiplex bioassays and fundamental cell biological studies.

A microfluidic photolithography for controlled encapsulation of single cells inside hydrogel microstructures

A microfluidic approach to generate hydrogel microstructures inside microchannels for controlled encapsulation of single cells was developed. The method was based on a modified microscope projection photolithography which allowed for the photopolymerization of poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEG-DA) inside microchannels. Uniform-sized hydrogel microstructures (∼50 μm in diameter) were generated one by one with determined positions to encapsulate single cells without losing the viability. Cells of interest could be identified by any kinds of visible labels to be selectively encapsulated inside the formed hydrogel microstructures. Large-scale encapsulation of single cells was achieved with a relatively high efficiency of 80% and the viability of encapsulated cells could be guaranteed by removing the dead cells identified with Trypan blue. This method is simple, fast and convenient to pattern the microchannels with single cells for a wide range of cell-based applications. For demonstration, two intracellular enzyme assays of carboxylesterase were performed to investigate the distribution of enzyme concentrations and the kinetic information within the encapsulated single HepG2 cells.

Dynamic Modulation of Multi-Cellular Clusters by Repetitive Microscope Projection Photolithography using Bio-Friendly Photoresist

Multicellular interactions are critical for many essential cellular functions under various physiological/pathological circumstances including embryonic development, cancer metastasis, and immune responses. Recent development of surface chemistry and microfabrication has provided new opportunities to better understand behavior of multicellular clusters. Surface micro-patterning of cell-adhesion ligand (e.g. fibronectin, RGD peptide) islands surrounded by cell-repelling backgrounds (e.g. poly(ethylene glycol), bovine serum albumin, etc.) can be used to create multicellular clusters with different sizes and shapes to examine various biophysical and biochemical factors critical for multicellular interactions. However, the number of cells occupying identical size of islands within a surface may vary depending on local cell density and kinetics of cell adhesion/spreading. Variation in number may not be a serious issue for multicellular clusters composed of tens of hundreds of cells, but would be critical for small multicellular clusters composed of less than ten cells. Dynamic modulation of micropatterned cells were typically achieved by electrochemical or photochemical removal of cell-repelling moieties on the surfaces and subsequent adsorption of cell-adhesion proteins, therefore cellular responses tended to be delayed until enough cell-adhesion proteins were deposited.Here, we developed a new technique that enables us to control the size/shape/composition of multicellular clusters composed of small numbers of cells, and to spontaneously modulate the shape and migratory behavior of multicellular clusters. Microscope projection photolithography (MPP) based on a bio-friendly photoresist poly(2,2-dimethoxy nitrobenzyl methacrylate-r-methyl methacrylate-r-poly(ethylene glycol) methacrylate) (PDMP) previously developed for the micropatterning of multiple proteins and cells with precise registration was extended. Using this technique, we successfully monitored actin, E-cadherin dynamics and collective migration of multicellular clusters.

Patterning Nanostructured, Synthetic, Polymeric Receptors by Simultaneous Projection Photolithography, Nanomolding, and Molecular Imprinting

Microscope projection photolithography is combined with nanomolding and molecular imprinting for the fast microfabrication of molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) arrays in the form of micrometric islands of nanofilaments. Dot diameters from 70-90 μm are easily obtained using a 10× objective and a photomask carrying the desired pattern. The dots are composed of parallel nanofilaments of a high aspect ratio, 150 nm in diameter and several micrometers in length, which are obtained through a nanomolding procedure on porous alumina. The arrays are molecularly imprinted with the small molecule fluorescein or with the protein myoglobin. The fluorescein MIP arrays are able to specifically recognize their target, as demonstrated by fluorescence microscopy. A four-fold increase in binding capacity and imprinting factor (IF = 13) is obtained compared to non-nanostructured porous dots. Imprinting of the nanofilament arrays with the protein myoglobin as the template is also possible and allows for a high imprinting factor of 4.3. Such nanostructured microarrays of synthetic receptors obtained by projection photolithography have great potential in biosensor and biochip development.

Multiscale Fabrication of Multiple Proteins and Topographical Structures by Combining Capillary Force Lithography and Microscope Projection Photolithography

Multiscale Fabrication of Multiple Proteins and Topographical Structures by Combining Capillary Force Lithography and Microscope Projection Photolithography

Multiscale Fabrication of Multiple Proteins and Topographical Structures by Combining Capillary Force Lithography and Microscope Projection Photolithography

We present new methods that enable the fabrication of multiscale, multicomponent protein-patterned surfaces and multiscale topologically structured surfaces by exploiting the merits of two well-established techniques: capillary force lithography (CFL) and microscope projection photolithography (MPP) based on a protein-friendly photoresist. We further demonstrate that, when hierarchically organized micro- and nanostructures were used as a cell culture platform, human colon cancer cells (cell line SW480) preferentially adhere and migrate onto the area with nanoscale topography over the one with microscale topography. These methods will provide many exciting opportunities for the study of cellular responses to multiscale physicochemical cues.

Addressable Micropatterning of Multiple Proteins and Cells by Microscope Projection Photolithography Based on a Protein Friendly Photoresist

We report a new method for the micropatterning of multiple proteins and cells with micrometer-scale precision. Microscope projection photolithography based on a new protein-friendly photoresist, poly(2,2-dimethoxy nitrobenzyl methacrylate-r-methyl methacrylate-r-poly(ethylene glycol) methacrylate) (PDMP), was used for the fabrication of multicomponent protein/cell arrays. Microscope projection lithography allows precise registration between multiple patterns as well as facile fabrication of microscale features. Thin films of PDMP became soluble in near-neutral physiological buffer solutions upon UV exposure and exhibited excellent resistance to protein adsorption and cell adhesion. By harnessing advantages in microscope projection photolithography and properties of PDMP thin films, we could successfully fabricate protein arrays composed of multiple proteins. Furthermore, we could extend this method for the patterning of two different types of immune cells for the potential study of immune cell interactions. This technique will in general be useful for protein chip fabrication and high-throughput cell-cell communication study.

Versatile maskless microscope projection photolithography system and its application in light-directed fabrication of DNA microarrays

We present a maskless microscope projection lithography system (MPLS), in which photomasks have been replaced by a Digital Micromirror Device type spatial light modulator (DMD™, Texas Instruments). Employing video projector technology high resolution patterns, designed as bitmap images on the computer, are displayed using a micromirror array consisting of about 786 000 tiny individually addressable tilting mirrors. The DMD, which is located in the image plane of an infinity corrected microscope, is projected onto a substrate placed in the focal plane of the microscope objective. With a 5× [0.25 NA (numerical aperture)] Fluar microscope objective, a fivefold reduction of the image to a total size of 9mm2 and a minimum feature size of 3.5μm is achieved. The ultrahigh pressure lamp of a video projector is a cheap, durable, and powerful alternative to the mercury arc lamps commonly used in lithography applications. The MPLS may be employed in standard photolithography. We have successfully produced patterns in 40μm films of SU-8 photoresist, with an aspect ratio of about 1:10. Our system can be used in the visible range as well as in the near UV (with a light intensity of up to 76mW∕cm2 around the 365nm Hg line). We developed an inexpensive and simple method to enable exact focusing and controlling of the image quality of the projected patterns. Our MPLS has originally been designed for the light-directed in situ synthesis of DNA microarrays. One requirement is a high UV intensity to keep the fabrication process reasonably short. Another demand is a sufficient contrast ratio over small distances (of about 5μm). This is necessary to achieve a high density of features (i.e., separated sites on the substrate at which different DNA sequences are synthesized in parallel fashion) while at the same time the number of stray light induced DNA sequence errors is kept reasonably small. We demonstrate the performance of the apparatus in light-directed DNA chip synthesis and discuss its advantages and limitations.