Microglial Morphology Research Articles

Microglia morphological response to mesenchymal stromal cell extracellular vesicles demonstrates EV therapeutic potential for modulating neuroinflammation

BackgroundMesenchymal stromal cell derived extracellular vesicles (MSC-EVs) are a promising therapeutic for neuroinflammation. MSC-EVs can interact with microglia, the resident immune cells of the brain, to exert their immunomodulatory effects. In response to inflammatory cues, such as cytokines, microglia undergo phenotypic changes indicative of their function e.g. morphology and secretion. However, these changes in response to MSC-EVs are not well understood. Additionally, no disease-relevant screening tools to assess MSC-EV bioactivity exist, which has further impeded clinical translation. Here, we developed a quantitative, high throughput morphological profiling approach to assess the response of microglia to neuroinflammation- relevant signals and whether this morphological response can be used to indicate the bioactivity of MSC-EVs.ResultsUsing an immortalized human microglia cell-line, we observed increased size (perimeter, major axis length) and complexity (form factor) upon stimulation with interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α). Upon treatment with MSC-EVs, the overall morphological score (determined using principal component analysis) shifted towards the unstimulated morphology, indicating that MSC-EVs are bioactive and modulate microglia. The morphological effects of MSC-EVs in TNF-α /IFN-γ stimulated cells were concomitant with reduced secretion of 14 chemokines/cytokines (e.g. CXCL6, CXCL9) and increased secretion of 12 chemokines/cytokines (e.g. CXCL8, CXCL10). Proteomic analysis of cell lysates revealed significant increases in 192 proteins (e.g. HIBADH, MEAK7, LAMC1) and decreases in 257 proteins (e.g. PTEN, TOM1, MFF) with MSC-EV treatment. Of note, many of these proteins are involved in regulation of cell morphology and migration. Gene Set Variation Analysis revealed upregulation of pathways associated with immune response, such as regulation of cytokine production, immune cell infiltration (e.g. T cells, NK cells) and morphological changes (e.g. Semaphorin, RHO/Rac signaling). Additionally, changes in microglia mitochondrial morphology were measured suggesting that MSC-EV modulate mitochondrial metabolism.ConclusionThis study comprehensively demonstrates the effects of MSC-EVs on human microglial morphology, cytokine secretion, cellular proteome, and mitochondrial content. Our high-throughput, rapid, low-cost morphometric approach enables screening of MSC-EV batches and manufacturing conditions to enhance EV function and mitigate EV functional heterogeneity in a disease relevant manner. This approach is highly generalizable and can be further adapted and refined based on selection of the disease-relevant signal, target cell, and therapeutic product.

A bibliometric analysis of global research on short chain fatty acids in neurological diseases.

The interest on short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) regulating the progress of neurological diseases has gained significant attention in recent years. This bibliometric analysis aimed to provide insights into the current state and future trends of global research on SCFAs in neurological research. To analysis the general trend of publications, the scientific output in this field from 1995 to 2024 was first retrieved from the Web of Science Core Collection, Scopus, and PubMed with SCFAs-related and neurological diseases related terms as the subjects. Based on above publication analysis, rapid development stage was marked as 2016 to 2024 and 878 relevant original articles in rapid development stage was retrieved with the time limit from 2016 to 2024. Key bibliometric indicators were calculated and evaluated using CiteSpace with these 878 articles. SCFAs are related to the occurrence and development of neurological diseases. China and the USA have contributed in a significant way to foster a better understanding on SCFAs in neurological diseases. The hot theme of research have gradually shifted from neurodegenerative diseases to psychical diseases. In the aspect of mechanism research, the current hotspot is inflammation. SCFAs are able to modulate oxidative stress and microglia maturation, morphology and function to intervene in the development of neurological diseases and thus SCFAs interventions are promising to treat neurological diseases. 2016 to 2024 is the fast-developing stage in this field. In this stage the publications dramatically increased and were of high quality. SCFAs in neurological research will continue to be an active area in the near future. Future trends might be correlation analysis and neurotherapeutics of SCFAs on patients with psychical diseases and deeper mechanism research is still needed.

Impact of supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids after maternal dietary deficiency on adolescent anxiety and microglial morphology.

Dietary maternal deficiency in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA) is a potential risk factor for the development of anxiety and other mood disorders in children and adolescents. Here, we used a previously characterized maternal n-3 PUFA dietary deficiency model in rats to determine the impact of postweaning supplementation on adolescent anxiety-like behaviors. We focused on two models of anxiety: innate anxiety tested by the elevated plus maze and a novel operant model of learned anxiety where animals learn that actions may be associated with a variable probability of harm. Given that recent basic and clinical studies have associated anxiety and other adverse effects of n-3 PUFA deficiency on inflammatory processes and microglial structure and function, we also assessed the impact of our dietary deficiency model and supplementation on adolescent microglial morphology in multiple brain regions. We found that the male and female adolescent n-3 PUFA-deficient groups exhibit increased innate anxiety, but only females showed enhanced learned anxiety. Supplementation after weaning did not significantly affect innate anxiety but ameliorated learned anxiety in females. Thus, the beneficial effects of supplementation on adolescent anxiety may be sex-specific and depend on the type of anxiety. We also found that n-3 PUFA deficiency influences microglia function in adolescents in the amygdala and nigrostriatal, but not mesolimbic, brain regions. Collectively, these data suggest that while n-3 PUFA dietary supplementation may be effective in reducing adolescent anxiety, this effect is context-, sex-, and brain network-specific. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Microglial morphology aligns with vigilance stage‐specific neuronal oscillations in a brain region‐dependent manner

AbstractMicroglia, the resident immune cells in the brain, dynamically adapt their morphology based on their functional state. This study explored the relationship between microglial morphology and sleep–wake cycles in mice. Using Iba1 immunostaining to identify microglia, we quantified morphological changes in microglia at different timepoints in multiple brain regions (cortex, hippocampus, basal forebrain, hindbrain, and cerebellum) in B6 male mice using semi‐automated 3D structural analysis. Simultaneously, in a separate group, we monitored wake and sleep stage‐specific brain activity using EEG/EMG recordings. During natural sleep–wake cycles, we observed increased microglial complexity (enlarged volume, territorial coverage, and ramification) during wakefulness, characterized by high‐frequency theta (8–12 Hz) and gamma activity (30–80 Hz). Conversely, during NREM sleep, which is dominated by delta activity (0.5–4 Hz), microglia displayed reduced complexity. Notably, this pattern was absent in brain regions lacking direct functional connections to areas generating vigilance stage‐dependent thalamocortical oscillations. We then extended wakefulness to decouple circadian influence from sleep–wake‐specific neuronal activity. This procedure attenuated the decrease in microglial complexity observed during natural sleep, suggesting a crucial role for neuronal activity. Subsequent recovery sleep restored microglial features, independent of the time of day (zeitgeber time). These findings reveal a dynamic interplay between vigilance stage‐specific thalamocortical activity and microglial morphology across various brain regions. This suggests a potential role for microglia in sleep regulation and warrants further investigation to understand the underlying mechanisms.

Constitutive expression of the deubiquitinating enzyme CYLD does not affect microglia phenotype or function in homeostasis and neuroinflammation

The deubiquitinating enzyme CYLD negatively regulates NF-κB signaling by removing activating ubiquitin chains from several members of the NF-κB pathway. Thereby, CYLD is critical for the maintenance and differentiation of various immune cells. Despite the importance of the NF-κB pathway in microglia regulation, the role of CYLD in microglia has not been investigated so far. In this study, we investigated whether CYLD in microglia can protect against neuroinflammation using a newly generated conditional mouse strain (Rosa26-Cyld-tdTomato) that allows cell type-specific CYLD overexpression. Here, we show that overexpression of CYLD in microglia did not alter microglia numbers or microglia morphology in different brain regions. Additionally, CYLD overexpression did not modify the microglial response to LPS-induced neuroinflammation or the disease severity in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Finally, also immune cell infiltration into the CNS during EAE and under steady state conditions remained unaffected by microglial CYLD overexpression. Our findings suggest that CYLD overexpression does not alter microglial function, and thus does not represent a viable therapeutic strategy in neuroinflammatory conditions. This study highlights the complexity of ubiquitin-mediated signaling in neuroinflammation and the need for cell-type-specific investigations. The Rosa26-Cyld-tdTomato mouse model offers a valuable tool for studying CYLD’s role across various tissues and cell types.Key messagesNovel mouse strain for cell type-specific overexpression of the deubiquitinating enzyme CYLD.CYLD overexpression in microglia did not alter microglia numbers or morphology in the steady state.CYLD overexpression in microglia did not protect mice from LPS-induced neuroinflammation or EAE.CYLD overexpression in microglia did not influence their gene expression during neuroinflammation.

Running exercise decreases microglial activation in the medial prefrontal cortex in an animal model of depression

BackgroundRunning exercise effectively ameliorates depressive symptoms in humans and depression-like behaviors in animals, but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Microglia-mediated neuroinflammation plays a major role in the development of depression. The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is a key brain region involved in depression and is sensitive to physical activity. Whether the antidepressant effect of running exercise involves changes in mPFC microglia is not understood. MethodsThe animals were subjected to chronic unpredictable stress (CUS) intervention followed by treadmill running. The sucrose preference test and elevated plus maze test or tail suspension test were used for behavioral assessment of the animals. The number of microglia in the mPFC was quantified by immunohistochemistry and stereology. The density and morphology of microglia were analyzed via immunofluorescence staining combined with three-dimensional laser scanning techniques. The mRNA expressions of inflammatory cytokines in the mPFC were examined via quantitative real-time PCR. ResultsRunning exercise effectively alleviated depressive-like behaviors in depression model animals. Running exercise reversed the increase in the number of microglia and the density of activated microglia in the mPFC of CUS animals. Running exercise effectively reversed the changes in microglia (reduced cell body area, total branch length and branch complexity) in the mPFC of CUS animals. Furthermore, running exercise regulated the gene expressions of pro−/antiinflammatory cytokines in the mPFC of CUS animals. ConclusionsOur results suggested that the antidepressant effects of running exercise may involve decreasing the number of activated microglia, reversing morphological changes in microglia in the mPFC, and reducing inflammatory responses.

Phloretin alleviates sleep deprivation-induced cognitive impairment by reducing inflammation through PPARγ/NF-κB signaling pathway

Sleep loss leads to significant pathophysiological consequences, including cognitive impairment. The neuroinflammation are pivotal factors in the pathogenesis of cognitive impairment induced by sleep loss. The phloretin (PHL), derived from peel of juicy fruits, has demonstrated potent anti-inflammatory properties. However, the precise influence of PHL on the cognitive impairment triggered by sleep loss and its underlying mechanism remain uncertain. In the present study, mice were subjected to sleep deprivation (SD) paradigm. Cognitive impairment induced by SD were significantly relieved by administration of PHL in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, PHL not only mitigated the synaptic losses but also enhanced dendritic spine density and neuronal activity within mice hippocampus following exposure to SD. Moreover, PHL treatment decreased the microglial numbers and altered microglial morphology in the hippocampus to restore the M1/M2 balances; these effects were accompanied by regulation of pro−/anti-inflammatory cytokine production and secretion in SD-exposed mice. Additionally, in vivo and in vitro studies showed PHL might attenuate the inflammation through the PPARγ/NF-κB pathway. Our findings suggest that PHL exerts inhibitory effects on microglia-mediated neuroinflammation, thereby providing protection against cognitive impairment induced by SD through a PPAR-γ dependent mechanism. The results indicate PHL is expected to provide a valuable candidate for new drug development for SD-induced cognitive impairment in the future.

Microglial morphological/inflammatory phenotypes and endocannabinoid signaling in a preclinical model of periodontitis and depression

BackgroundDepression is a chronic psychiatric disease of multifactorial etiology, and its pathophysiology is not fully understood. Stress and other chronic inflammatory pathologies are shared risk factors for psychiatric diseases, and comorbidities are features of major depression. Epidemiological evidence suggests that periodontitis, as a source of low-grade chronic systemic inflammation, may be associated with depression, but the underlying mechanisms are not well understood.MethodsPeriodontitis (P) was induced in Wistar: Han rats through oral gavage with the pathogenic bacteria Porphyromonas gingivalis and Fusobacterium nucleatum for 12 weeks, followed by 3 weeks of chronic mild stress (CMS) to induce depressive-like behavior. The following four groups were established (n = 12 rats/group): periodontitis and CMS (P + CMS+), periodontitis without CMS, CMS without periodontitis, and control. The morphology and inflammatory phenotype of microglia in the frontal cortex (FC) were studied using immunofluorescence and bioinformatics tools. The endocannabinoid (EC) signaling and proteins related to synaptic plasticity were analyzed in FC samples using biochemical and immunohistochemical techniques.ResultsUltrastructural and fractal analyses of FC revealed a significant increase in the complexity and heterogeneity of Iba1 + parenchymal microglia in the combined experimental model (P + CMS+) and increased expression of the proinflammatory marker inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), while there were no changes in the expression of cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2). In the FC protein extracts of the P + CMS + animals, there was a decrease in the levels of the EC metabolic enzymes N-acyl phosphatidylethanolamine-specific phospholipase D (NAPE-PLD), diacylglycerol lipase (DAGL), and monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) compared to those in the controls, which extended to protein expression in neurons and in FC extracts of cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) and to the intracellular signaling molecules phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K), protein kinase B (Akt) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2). The protein levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and synaptophysin were also lower in P + CMS + animals than in controls.ConclusionsThe combined effects on microglial morphology and inflammatory phenotype, the EC signaling, and proteins related to synaptic plasticity in P + CMS + animals may represent relevant mechanisms explaining the association between periodontitis and depression. These findings highlight potential therapeutic targets that warrant further investigation.Graphical

Weisheng-tang protects against ischemic brain injury by modulating microglia activation through the P2Y12 receptor.

Background: Stroke, a leading cause of death and disability, lacks effective treatments. Post-stroke secondary damage worsens the brain microenvironment, further exacerbating brain injury. Microglia's role in responding to stroke-induced damage in peri-infarct regions is crucial. In this study, we explored Weisheng-tang's potential to enhance ischemic outcomes by targeting microglia. Methods: We induced middle cerebral artery occlusion and reperfusion in mice, followed by behavioral assessments and infarct volume analyses after 48h, and examined the changes in microglial morphology through skeleton analysis. Results: Weisheng-tang (300mg/kg) significantly reduced infarction volume and alleviated neurological and motor deficits. The number of activated microglia was markedly increased within the peri-infarct territory, which was significantly reversed by Weisheng-tang. Microglial morphology analysis revealed that microglial processes were retracted owing to ischemic damage but were restored in Weisheng-tang-treated mice. This restoration was accompanied by the expression of the purinergic P2Y12 receptor (P2Y12R), a key regulator of microglial process extension. Weisheng-tang increased neuronal Kv2.1 clusters while suppressing juxtaneuronal microglial activation. The P2Y12R inhibitor-ticagrelor-eliminated the tissue and functional recovery that had been observed with Weisheng-tang after ischemic damage. Discussion: Weisheng-tang improved experimental stroke outcomes by modulating microglial morphology through P2Y12R, shedding light on its neuroprotective potential in ischemic stroke.

Microglia synchronizes with the circadian rhythm of the glymphatic system and modulates glymphatic system function.

Microglia, as immune cells in the central nervous system, possess the ability to adapt morphologically and functionally to their environment. Glymphatic system, the principal waste clearance system in the brain, exhibits circadian rhythms. However, the impact of microglia on the glymphatic system function remains unknown. In this study, we explored the intricate relationship between microglia and the glymphatic system. Examining diurnal patterns, we identified synchronized behaviors in glymphatic activity and microglial morphology, peaking during sleep and exhibiting distinct changes in branching complexity. Depleting microglia using PLX5622 or in P2Y12 knockout mice enhanced glymphatic function. Chemogenetic manipulation of microglia demonstrated that activating HM3D improved glymphatic function, while inhibiting HM4D unexpectedly increased microglial complexity. These findings highlight the dynamic influence of microglia on the glymphatic system.

Cannabinoid type 2 receptor deficiency leads to Aβ-induced cognitive impairment through promoting microglial sensitivity to Aβ in the prefrontal cortex in mice

AimsThis study is to investigate the effects of Cannabinoid type 2 receptor (CB2R) deficiency on microglia and cognitive function in both Aβ1–42-injected CB2R knockout mice and a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) in brain. MethodsAfter hippocampal injection with Aβ1–42 oligomers in CB2R knockout mice with and without CB2R agonist treatment and in transgenic APP/PS1 mice with CB2R deletion, the novel object recognition (NOR) and Morris water maze (MWM) tests were performed to assess the animal behavior performance. Immunofluorescence staining was conducted to detect the microglial morphology and activation status. The expression of proinflammation and anti-inflammation cytokines were determined by qRT-PCR. ResultsCB2R deficiency significantly aggravated cognitive impairment in both Aβ1–42-induced and transgenic APP/PS1 animal model in NOR. In Aβ-injected mice lacking CB2R and transgenic APP/PS1 mice with CB2R deletion, microglia in the prefrontal cortex exhibited enhanced immunoreactivity with altered morphology. Furthermore, transformation of activated microglial phenotype in the prefrontal cortex was reduced in Aβ1–42-injected CB2R knockout mice after CB2R agonist treatment. The CB2R deficiency significantly increased the expression of proinflammatory cytokines in the prefrontal cortex, while it was observed in the hippocampus in both Aβ1–42-injected and transgenic APP/PS1 AD mouse model. Furthermore, CB2R deficiency increased concentrations of soluble Aβ 40 in the prefrontal cortex, but did not affect plaques deposition. ConclusionCB2R deletion led to enhanced neuroinflammatory responses via direct upregulating microglia activation in the prefrontal cortex during the early symptomatic phase of AD mice. CB2R modulates prefrontal cortical neuroinflammation, which is essential for regulating cognitive functions such as recognition memory at the early stage of AD.

Effects of social dominance and acute social stress on morphology of microglia and structural integrity of the medial prefrontal cortex

Chronic stress increases activity of the brain’s innate immune system and impairs function of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). However, whether acute stress triggers similar neuroimmune mechanisms is poorly understood. Across four studies, we used a Syrian hamster model to investigate whether acute stress drives changes in mPFC microglia in a time-, subregion-, and social status-dependent manner. We found that acute social defeat increased expression of ionized calcium binding adapter molecule 1 (Iba1) in the infralimbic (IL) and prelimbic (PL) and altered the morphology Iba1+ cells 1, 2, and 7 days after social defeat. We also investigated whether acute defeat induced tissue degeneration and reductions of synaptic plasticity 2 days post-defeat. We found that while social defeat increased deposition of cellular debris and reduced synaptophysin immunoreactivity in the PL and IL, treatment with minocycline protected against these cellular changes. Finally, we tested whether a reduced conditioned defeat response in dominant compared to subordinate hamsters was associated with changes in microglia reactivity in the IL and PL. We found that while subordinate hamsters and those without an established dominance relationships showed defeat-induced changes in morphology of Iba1+ cells and cellular degeneration, dominant hamsters showed resistance to these effects of social defeat. Taken together, these findings indicate that acute social defeat alters microglial morphology, increases markers of tissue degradation, and impairs structural integrity in the IL and PL, and that experience winning competitive interactions can specifically protect the IL and reduce stress vulnerability.

Downregulation of Fidgetin-Like 2 Increases Microglial Function: The Relationship Between Microtubules, Morphology, and Activity.

The microtubule cytoskeleton regulates microglial morphology, motility, and effector functions. The microtubule-severing enzyme, fidgetin-like 2 (FL2), negatively regulates cell motility and nerve regeneration, making it a promising therapeutic target for central nervous system injury. Microglia perform important functions in response to inflammation and injury, but how FL2 affects microglia is unclear. In this study, we investigated the role of FL2 in microglial morphology and injury responses in vitro. We first determined that the pro-inflammatory stimulus, lipopolysaccharide (LPS), induced a dose- and time-dependent reduction in FL2 expression associated with reduced microglial ramification. We then administered nanoparticle-encapuslated FL2 siRNA to knockdown FL2 and assess microglial functions compared to negative control siRNA and vehicle controls. Time-lapse live-cell microscopy showed that FL2 knockdown increased the velocity of microglial motility. After incubation with fluorescently labeled IgG-opsonized beads, FL2 knockdown increased phagocytosis. Microglia were exposed to low-dose LPS after nanoparticle treatment to model injury-induced cytokine secretion. FL2 knockdown enhanced LPS-induced cytokine secretion of IL-1α, IL-1β, and TNFα. These results identify FL2 as a regulator of microglial morphology and suggest that FL2 can be targeted to increase or accelerate microglial injury responses.

Microglia morphology in the developing primate amygdala and effects of early life stress.

The paralaminar (PL) nucleus of the amygdala is an important source of plasticity, due to its unique repository of immature glutamatergic neurons. PL immature neurons mature between birth and adolescence. This process is likely supported by synaptogenesis, which requires microglia. Between infancy and adolescence in macaques, PL microglia became more dense, and shifted to a 'ramified' phenotype, consistent with increased synaptic pruning functions. Early life stress in the form of maternal separation, however, blunted this normal trajectory, leading to persistent 'parainflammatory' microglial morphologies. We speculate that early life stress may alter PL neuronal maturation and synapse formation through microglia.

Regulatory T cells administration reduces anxiety-like behavior in mice submitted to chronic restraint stress.

Major depression disorder (MDD) and anxiety are common mental disorders that significantly affect the quality of life of those who suffer from them, altering the person's normal functioning. From the biological perspective, the most classical hypothesis explaining their occurrence relies on neurotransmission and hippocampal excitability alterations. However, around 30% of MDD patients do not respond to medication targeting these processes. Over the last decade, the involvement of inflammatory responses in depression and anxiety pathogenesis has been strongly acknowledged, opening the possibility of tackling these disorders from an immunological point of view. In this context, regulatory T cells (Treg cells), which naturally maintain immune homeostasis by suppressing inflammation could be promising candidates for their therapeutic use in mental disorders. To test this hypothesis, C57BL/6 adult male mice were submitted to classical stress protocols to induce depressive and anxiety-like behavior; chronic restriction stress (CRS), and chronic unpredictable stress (CUS). Some of the stressed mice received a single adoptive transfer of Treg cells during stress protocols. Mouse behavior was analyzed through the open field (OFT) and forced swim test (FST). Blood and spleen samples were collected for T cell analysis using cell cytometry, while brains were collected to study changes in microglia by immunohistochemistry. Mice submitted to CRS and CUS develop anxiety and depressive-like behavior, and only CRS mice exhibit lower frequencies of circulating Treg cells. Adoptive transfer of Treg cells decreased anxiety-like behavior in the OFT only in CRS model, but not depressive behavior in FST in neither of the two models. In CRS mice, Treg cells administration lowered the number of microglia in the hippocampus, which increased due this stress paradigm, and restored its arborization. However, in CUS mice, Treg cells administration increased microglia number with no significant effect on their arborization. Our results for effector CD4+ T cells in the spleen and microglia number and morphology in the hippocampus add new evidence in favor of the participation of inflammatory responses in the development of depressive and anxiety-like behavior and suggest that the modulation of key immune cells such as Treg cells, could have beneficial effects on these disorders.

Androgen deprivation exacerbates AD pathology by promoting the loss of microglia in an age-dependent manner

AimsMicroglial cells are integral to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). The observed sex disparity in AD prevalence, with a notable predominance in women, implies a potential influence of sex hormones, such as androgens, on disease mechanisms. Despite this, the specific effects of androgens on microglia remain unclear. This study is designed to delineate the interplay between androgens and the survival and inflammatory profile of microglial cells, as well as to explore their contribution to the progression of AD. Methods and key findingsTo create a chronic androgen deficiency model, 3-month-old wild-type (WT) mice and APP/PS1 mice underwent bilateral orchiectomy (ORX), with age-matched sham-operated controls. Cognitive and memory were evaluated at 5 and 12 months, paralleled by assessments of amyloid-beta (Aβ) and microglial morphology in hippocampal and cortical areas. The ORX treatment in mice resulted in diminished microglial populations and morphological alterations, alongside an increase in Aβ plaques and a concomitant decline in cognitive performance that exacerbated over time. In vitro, dihydrotestosterone (DHT) was found to stimulate microglial proliferation and ameliorate Aβ1–42-induced apoptosis. SignificanceThese findings suggested that androgens may exert a protective role, maintaining the normal proliferation and functionality of microglial cells. This preservation could potentially slow the progression of AD. As a result, our study provided a conceptual framework for the development of novel therapeutic strategies for AD.

The arrangements of the microvasculature and surrounding glial cells are linked to blood-brain barrier formation in the cerebral cortex.

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) blocks harmful substances from entering the brain and dictates the central nervous system (CNS)-specific pharmacokinetics. Recent studies have shown that perivascular astrocytes and microglia also control BBB functions, however, information about the formation of BBB glial architecture remains scarce. We investigated the time course of the formation of BBB glial architecture in the rat brain cerebral cortex using Evans blue (EB) and tissue fixable biotin (Sulfo-NHS Biotin). The extent of the leakage into the brain parenchyma showed that the BBB was not formed at postnatal Day 4 (P4). The BBB gradually strengthened and reached a plateau at P15. We then investigated the changes in the configurations of blood vessels, astrocytes, and microglia with age by 3D image reconstruction of the immunohistochemical data. The endfeet of astrocytes covered the blood vessels, and the coverage rate rapidly increased after birth and reached a plateau at P15. Interestingly, microglia were also in contact with the capillaries, and the coverage rate was highest at P15 and stabilized at P30. It was also clarified that the microglial morphology changed from the amoeboid type to the ramified type, while the areas of the respective contact sites became smaller during P4 and P15. These results suggest that the perivascular glial architecture formation of the rat BBB occurs from P4 to P15 because the paracellular transport and the arrangements of perivascular glial cells at P15 are totally the same as those of P30. In addition, the contact style of perivascular microglia dramatically changed during P4-P15.

Repeated seizure-induced brainstem neuroinflammation contributes to post-ictal ventilatory control dysfunction.

Patients with epilepsy face heightened risk of post-ictal cardiorespiratory suppression and sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP). Studies have shown that neuroinflammation, mediated by the activation of microglia and astrocytes, may be a cause or consequence of seizure disorders. Kcnj16 (Kir5.1) knockout rats (SS kcnj16-/- ) are susceptible to repeated audiogenic seizures and recapitulate features of human SUDEP, including post-ictal ventilatory suppression, which worsens with repeated seizures and seizure-induced mortality. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that repeated seizures cause neuroinflammation within key brainstem regions that contribute to the control of breathing. Audiogenic seizures were elicited once/day for up to 10days in groups of adult male SS kcnj16-/- rats, from which frozen brainstem biopsies of the pre-Bötzinger complex/nucleus ambiguus (preBötC/NA), Bötzinger complex (BötC), and raphe magnus (RMg) regions were subjected to a cytokine array. Several cytokines/chemokines, including IL-1α and IL-1ß, were increased selectively in preBötC/NA after 3 or 5days of seizures with fewer changes in other regions tested. In additional groups of male SS kcnj16-/- rats that underwent repeated seizures, we quantified microglial (IBA-1+) cell counts and morphology, specifically within the preBötC/NA region, and showed increased microglial cell counts, area, and volume consistent with microglial activation. To further test the role of inflammation in physiological responses to seizures and seizure-related mortality, additional groups of SS kcnj16-/- rats were treated with anakinra (IL-1R antagonist), ketoprofen (non-selective COX inhibitor), or saline for 3days before and up to 10days of seizures (1/day), and breathing was measured before, during, and after each seizure. Remarkably, IL-1R antagonism mitigated changes in post-ictal ventilatory suppression on days 7-10 but failed to prevent seizure-related mortality, whereas ketoprofen treatment exacerbated post-ictal ventilatory suppression compared to other treatment groups but prevented seizure-related mortality. These data demonstrate neuroinflammation and microglial activation within the key brainstem region of respiratory control following repeated seizures, which may functionally but differentially contribute to the pathophysiological consequences of repeated seizures.

Neuromodulation with transcranial direct current stimulation contributes to motor function recovery via microglia in spinal cord injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is damage or trauma to the spinal cord, which often results in loss of function, sensation, or mobility below the injury site. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a non-invasive and affordable brain stimulation technique used to modulate neuronal circuits, which changes the morphology and activity of microglia in the cerebral cortex. However, whether similar morphological changes can be observed in the spinal cord remains unclear. Therefore, we evaluated neuronal population activity in layer 5 (L5) of M1 following SCI and investigated whether changes in the activities of L5 neurons affect microglia-axon interactions using C57BL/6J mice. We discovered that L5 of the primary motor cortex (corticospinal neurons) exhibited reduced synchronized activity after SCI that correlates with microglial morphology, which was recovered using tDCS. This indicates that tDCS promotes changes in the morphological properties and recovery of microglia after SCI. Combining immunotherapy with tDCS may be effective in treating SCI.

Evaluation of neuroretina following i.v. or intra-CSF AAV9 gene replacement in mice with MPS IIIA, a childhood dementia.

Sanfilippo syndrome (mucopolysaccharidosis type IIIA; MPS IIIA) is a childhood dementia caused by inherited mutations in the sulfamidase gene. At present, there is no treatment and children with classical disease generally die in their late teens. Intravenous or intra-cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) injection of AAV9-gene replacement is being examined in human clinical trials; evaluation of the impact on brain disease is an intense focus; however, MPS IIIA patients also experience profound, progressive photoreceptor loss, leading to night blindness. To compare the relative efficacy of the two therapeutic approaches on retinal degeneration in MPS IIIA mice. Neonatal mice received i.v. or intra-CSF AAV9-sulfamidase or vehicle and after 20 weeks, biochemical and histological evaluation of neuroretina integrity was carried out. Both treatments improved central retinal thickness; however, in peripheral retina, outer nuclear layer thickness and photoreceptor cell length were only significantly improved by i.v. gene replacement. Further, normalization of endo-lysosomal compartment size and microglial morphology was only observed following intravenous gene delivery. Confirmatory studies are needed in adult mice; however, these data indicate that i.v. AAV9-sulfamidase infusion leads to superior outcomes in neuroretina, and cerebrospinal fluid-delivered AAV9 may need to be supplemented with another therapeutic approach for optimal patient quality of life.