Skin Microflora Research Articles

Commensal and Pathogenic Bacteria Associated with Farmed Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbum) and Aquaculture Environment

The bacterial microflora associated with farmed rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum) and its aquaculture environment was characterized. The counts of commensal, indicator and pathogenic bacteria were determined and bacterial colonies were characterized. The mean mesophilic counts were 4.5 log CFU g -1 and 7.6 log CFU g -1 in skin with muscle and intestine respectively. Significantly high densities of faecal coliform, E. coli and Enterococci was detected in pond sediment, fish intestine and feed when compared to pond water and trout tissues. A total of 110 randomly selected isolates from TSA were identified and characterized. Of the mesophiles, 70–75% were aerobic Gram-negative bacteria, both motile and non-motile, and members of the Enterobacteriaceae family. The skin microflora of trout was dominated by Gram-negative aerobic rods belonging to Enterobacteriaceae, Aeromonadaceae, Pseudomonas/ Shewanella, Moraxella, Acinetobacter and Flavobacterium. Psychrotrophic bacterial isolates of the genera Pseudomonas, Morganella, Hafnia were identified in trout. Pathogenic bacteria such as Clostridium botulinum, Yersinia enterocolitica could not be detected. However, Aeromonas hydrophila, A. veronii biovar sobria, A. veronii biovar veronii were prevalent in farmed trout. Presence of bacterial pathogens in the trout farm envisages a strict hygienic handling and processing of fish from such culture systems for ensuring public health safety.

The Impact of Air Pollution on Atopic Dermatitis. Literature review

Introduction and purpose The rising level of air pollution is currently a serious worldwide problem. Airborne pollutants, such as PM, O3, CO, NOx, SO₂, and heavy metals, negatively impact the entire body, contributing to the dysfunction of many systems. The aim of this study was to review the literature on the impact of selected air pollutants on the development or exacerbation of atopic dermatitis, and to elucidate the mechanisms responsible for this. Materials and methods The literature available in PubMed and Google Scholar databases was reviewed using the keywords: “air pollution”, “atopic dermatitis”, “skin lesions”. Description of the state of knowledge Available studies have provided information on the significant impact of air pollution on the development and exacerbation of atopic dermatitis. Air pollutants can induce skin changes through various mechanisms, such as damage to the epidermal barrier, disruption of skin microflora, oxidative stress, initiation of inflammatory responses, or activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor pathway. Conclusions Reducing air pollution is crucial for improving overall public health and decreasing the incidence of many diseases, including atopic dermatitis. Further research is needed to deepen the understanding of the relationship between air pollution and atopic dermatitis, as well as the mechanisms responsible for it, and to develop effective strategies for protecting the skin from pollutants.

53889 Impact of DFD-29, a Low-Dose Oral Minocycline, on Skin, Gastrointestinal Tract, and Vaginal Microflora in Healthy Adults: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial

53889 Impact of DFD-29, a Low-Dose Oral Minocycline, on Skin, Gastrointestinal Tract, and Vaginal Microflora in Healthy Adults: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial

Discovery of a C-S lyase inhibitor for the prevention of human body malodor formation: tannic acid inhibits the thioalcohol production in Staphylococcus hominis.

Human body odor is a result of the bacterial biotransformation of odorless precursor molecules secreted by the underarm sweat glands. In the human axilla, Staphylococcus hominis is the predominant bacterial species responsible for the biotransformation process of the odorless precursor molecule into the malodorous 3M3SH by two enzymes, a dipeptidase and a specific C-S lyase. The current solutions for malodor, such as deodorants and antiperspirants are known to block the apocrine glands or disrupt the skin microbiota. Additionally, these chemicals endanger both the environment and human health, and their long-term use can influence the function of sweat glands. Therefore, there is a need for the development of alternative, environmentally friendly, and natural solutions for the prevention of human body malodor. In this study, a library of secondary metabolites from various plants was screened to inhibit the C-S lyase, which metabolizes the odorless precursor sweat molecules, through molecular docking and molecular dynamics (MD) simulation. In silico studies revealed that tannic acid had the strongest affinity towards C-S lyase and was stably maintained in the binding pocket of the enzyme during 100-ns MD simulation. We found in the in vitro biotransformation assays that 1 mM tannic acid not only exhibited a significant reduction in malodor formation but also had quite low growth inhibition in S. hominis, indicating the minimum inhibitory effect of tannic acid on the skin microflora. This study paved the way for the development of a promising natural C-S lyase inhibitor to eliminate human body odor and can be used as a natural deodorizing molecule after further in vivo analysis.

Effect of a topical traditional Chinese herbal medicine on skin microbiota in mouse model of atopic dermatitis

This study aims to explore the impact of the herbal ointment Chushi Zhiyang Ruangao (CSZYRG) on the skin's microecological environment in a mouse model of atopic dermatitis (AD) and to understand the underlying mechanisms involved. The AD model was established in C57 mice using calpolitol (a hypocalcemic analog of vitamin D3; MC903). Medication-free matrix ointment, CSZYRG, and mometasone furoate cream (positive control group) were applied to the injured areas. The skin lesions of AD model mice were photographed. Skin lesions were applied for the hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining to observe any pathological changes. Serum immunoglobulin IgE was detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The changes in the expression of inflammation-related factors TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in mice were detected using ELISA and qRT-PCR. Skin microflora samples were taken for 16S rDNA sequencing and analyzed for changes in the skin flora diversity, abundance, and dominant flora in mice. It was concluded that CSZYRG effectively alleviates skin lesions, serum IgE, and levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in AD model mice. However, CSZYRG did not affect the skin microbial diversity of AD model mice but could exert an effect on the skin microbial community in AD mice and the relative abundance of the dominant microflora. CSZYRG may play a therapeutic role in AD by affecting the skin microbial community and relative abundance of dominant microflora in AD mice.

Hand Sanitizer: Stopping the Spread of Infection at a Cost.

The recent rise in hand sanitizer use due to the COVID-19 pandemic has had a beneficial impact on stopping the spread of disease, but the potential negative implications of its overuse on the body and the microbiome have yet to be thoroughly reviewed. Epidermal layers absorb hand sanitizer from direct application to the skin, making them some of the most susceptible cells to the adverse effects of overuse. The increased usage of hand sanitizer can affect the variation, quantity, and diversity of the skin microflora, leading to conditions such as eczema, atopic dermatitis, and even systemic toxicity due to colonization of the skin with pathogenic bacteria. Due to the close-knit relationship between the skin and gut, the gastrointestinal system can also incur disruptions due to the negative effects on the skin as a result of excessive hand sanitizer use, leading to gut dysbiosis. Additionally, the accidental ingestion of hand sanitizer, and its abuse or misuse, can be toxic and lead to alcohol poisoning, which is an issue most commonly seen not only in the pediatric population but also in adolescents and adults due to aberrant recreational exposure. As a vulnerable body system, the eyes can also be negatively impacted by hand sanitizer misuse leading to chemical injury, visual impairment, and even blindness. In this review, we aim to highlight the variations in hand sanitizer formulation, the benefits, and how misuse or overuse may lead to adverse effects on the skin, gut, and eyes. In particular, we review the advantages and disadvantages of alcohol-based hand sanitizers (ABHSs) and non-alcohol-based hand sanitizers (NABHSs) and how the components and chemicals used in each can contribute to organ dysbiosis and systemic damage.

Exploring Skin Microbiota: Insights into Antibiotic Resistance and Environmental Influence

Human skin microflora is an important barrier for many harmful invading microorganisms. However, innate and foreign factors including metal exposure and overuse of antibiotics may attune this microflora. Disruption of microflora in turn leads to several skin diseases and other health problems. The current study aimed to isolate antibiotic-resistant microorganisms and explore new methods for treating these microorganisms of skin flora. For this purpose, 100 skin samples were collected from urban and rural agricultural residents of Multan. Bacterial isolates were biochemically characterized. Isolated microflora included S. aureus 24.5%, S.epidermidis (28%), C.xerosis (8.5%), Klebsiella (9%), C. Kutscheri (5%), P.aurigenosa (19.6%), and E.coli (5.5%).

Some aspects of clinical trial of the drug “Vetmicoderm”

Our aim was to conduct some clinical trials of the drug «Vetmikoderm» and compare its effectiveness with the well-known agent «Triosan». Clinical trials to determine the therapeutic effectiveness of the drug «Vetmikoderm» were carried out at the veterinary clinic «BEST» (Zaporizhzhia) on two groups of dogs, formed by gradual recruitment (based on the owners' referral to the clinic). To determine the etiological factors contributing to the development of dermatosis, we conducted a study of skin microflora. The sensitivity of microorganisms and fungi to the action of the «Vetmikoderm» preparation was determined by the disc-diffusion method. In the process of diagnostic research, including microbiological studies, it was established that conditionally pathogenic microflora from affected areas of dogs' skin was represented by both microorganisms and fungi. At the same time, fungi prevailed in the microbiocenosis of the selected skin samples. It is worth noting that «Vetmikoderm» has a better fungicidal effect, while «Triosan» is evidently more effective in treating dermatoses with predominantly microbial contamination. It has been proven that the combined use of both drugs has a better influence on the recovery process in animals.

Long-Term Disinfection in Operating Rooms Affects Skin Microbiota and Metabolites of Medical Personnel

Introduction: Disinfectants play a critical role in reducing healthcare-associated infections by eliminating microorganisms on surfaces. However, prolonged use of disinfectants may adversely affect the skin microflora, essential for skin health and infection prevention. This study investigates the impact of disinfection on the skin microbiota and metabolites of medical personnel in operating rooms, aiming to provide a scientific foundation for safeguarding their skin health. Methods: We conducted 16S sequencing and metabolomic analysis to assess the effects of disinfection on the skin microbiota and metabolites of medical personnel. Samples were collected from operating room personnel after disinfectant exposure to identify changes in microbial communities and metabolite profiles. Results: Our analysis revealed that prolonged use of disinfectants led to alterations in skin microbial communities and microbial metabolites. These alterations included the production of harmful metabolites that could potentially promote skin infections and other health issues among medical personnel. Conclusion: The findings underscore the importance of minimizing disruptions to skin microbiota and metabolites caused by long-term disinfectant use to preserve the overall health of medical personnel. This study provides valuable insights into the relationship between disinfectant use, skin microbiota, and metabolites, highlighting the necessity for further research in this area.

Novel 3D printed polysaccharide-based materials with prebiotic activity for potential treatment of diaper rash

Diaper rash, mainly occurring as erythema and itching in the diaper area, causes considerable distress to infants and toddlers. Increasing evidence suggests that an unequal distribution of microorganisms on the skin contributes to the development of diaper dermatitis. Probiotic bacteria, like Staphylococcus epidermidis, are crucial for maintaining a healthy balance in the skin's microbiome, among others, through their fermentative metabolites, such as short-chain fatty acids. Using a defined prebiotic as a carbon source (e.g., as part of the diaper formulation) can selectively trigger the fermentation of probiotic bacteria. A proper material choice can reduce diaper rash incidence by diminishing the skin exposure to wetness and faeces. Using 3D printing, we fabricated carbon-rich materials for the top sheet layer of baby diapers that enhance the probiotic activity of S. epidermidis. The developed materials' printability, chemical composition, swelling ability, and degradation rate were analysed. In addition, microbiological tests evaluated their potential as a source of in situ short-chain fatty acid production. Finally, biocompatibility testing with skin cells evaluated their safety for potential use as part of diapers. The results demonstrate a cost-effective approach for producing novel materials that can tailor the ecological balance of the skin microflora and help treat diaper rash.

Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Staphylococcus Phages in a Skincare Serum against Staphylococcus spp.

The emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) Staphylococcus spp. has resulted in the reduced use of antibiotics in many skincare cosmetic products. Alternative treatments using natural bioactive compounds and chemical agents can be replaced. However, these compounds have induced negative side effects among users and are not environmentally friendly. Phage therapy is an alternative to antibiotics for the treatment of specific pathogenic bacteria including Staphylococcus spp., without harmful effects on human skin cells and microflora. Phages can be potentially used in cosmetic products. The direct application of phage-based cosmetic products on skin can reduce the chance of skin infection caused by pathogenic Staphylococcus spp. In the present work, we isolated 17 Staphylococcus phages from sewage and soil samples. Phage A1 showed the highest lytic ability at 50% (B1 profile), covering 13 tested Staphylococcus isolates including Staphylococcus aureus (SA), methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), S. capitis (SC), and S. epidermidis (SE). Phage A1 reduced the representative S. aureus ATCC 25923 and S. capitis SC1 by 2.0 ± 0.1 and 4.1 ± 0.3 log units at a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 104 and by 4.2 ± 0.2 and 4.4 ± 0.5 log units at a MOI of 105 after 6 h of post-phage treatment. The transmission electron microscope revealed that phage A1 was classified in the order Caudovirales of the family Myoviridae based on its appearance. Phage A1 showed optimal survival in the presence of a 0.125% (v/v) solidant DMH suspension after 3 h of post-treatment. Under a phage skincare serum formulation, the titers of phage A1 were reduced by 0.46 and 0.85 log units after storage at 4 and 25 °C, whereas a reduction of 2.96 log units was also observed after storage at 37° for 90 days. This study provides strong evidence for the effectiveness of phage application in cosmetic skincare serum for the treatment of skin diseases caused by MDR and pathogenic Staphylococcus spp. The concept of this study could be advantageous for cosmetic and/or cosmeceutical industries searching for new bioactive ingredients for cosmetic/cosmeceutical products.

Microbial Load of Hand Sanitizer Dispensers—A University Hospital Study

Hospital-acquired infections are a significant concern in healthcare settings, leading to patient safety risks, increased morbidity and mortality, and financial burdens. Hand hygiene is crucial in preventing the spread of bacteria in hospitals and communities. Manual hand sanitizer dispensers can harbor presumptive pathogenic bacteria and act as fomites for bacterial transmission. This study aimed to assess the microbial contamination of manual hand sanitizer dispensers in a hospital setting and to study their antibiotic resistance profiles. Samples were collected using sterile cotton swabs and then inoculated into brain heart infusion broth. Subsequent subcultures were performed on both blood and MacConkey agar. The isolates were then identified using the Bruker MALDI Biotyper (Bruker Daltonik, Bremen, Germany) to the species level. Sampling was conducted in various wards and in the hospital and the University areas on dispenser levers and nozzle areas. The results showed that all samples yielded one or more bacterial species. Bacterial isolates identified belonged to species commonly found on the skin microflora and some Gram-negative enteric bacilli. Higher colonization was observed on the dispenser lever. Among Gram+ microorganisms, most bacterial species were shown to be sensitive to β-lactams, with the exception of Staphylococcus spp., resistant to AMP (Ampicillin) and Penicillin. However, no Methicillin resistant isolates were detected. Gram− microorganisms such as Pseudomonas luteola were shown to be sensitive to all tested antibiotics, while Pantoea agglomerans was shown to be resistant to AMC (amoxicillin–clavulanic acid). Rifampicin tested only against Bacilli showed resistance. Based on the findings, it is recommended to implement systematic cleaning and proper maintenance of manual dispenser areas or to use automated dispensers to reduce hand contact and minimize microbial contamination. Monitoring the presence of microorganisms in hand sanitizing gels and dispensers is an essential infection control strategy.

Skin Barrier-Enhancing Effects of Dermabiotics HDB with Regulation of Skin Microbiota.

In the regulation of inflammatory responses and skin homeostasis, the skin and its microbiota are closely related. Studies have reported that lactic acid bacteria extracts can improve the skin condition and microbiota. In our previous study, we developed probiotic lysates, which are efficacious in improvement of human skin cells and the skin barrier. The skin-moisturizing effect of Dermabiotics HDB (HDB) prepared with Lactiplantibacillus plantarum, and the correlation between changes in the skin microbiota and moisture contents, were evaluated and analyzed in clinical trials. The clinical parameters on the cheeks of 21 female participants were measured using biophysical tools before and after (2 weeks) using HDB or control. The skin microbes were collected and identified using 16s rRNA gene sequencing. HDB significantly improved moisture intensity, transepidermal water loss (TEWL), and hot flush level on the cheek. The beta-diversity of the skin microbiota was different from that of the control in the unweighted UniFrac principal coordinate analysis after using HDB. The genus Lawsonella demonstrated a positive correlation with TEWL and a negative correlation with the moisture contents of the keratin layer, regardless of the use of HDB and control. Conversely, after HDB use, the genus Staphylococcus was increased and associated with a lower hot flush level, while the genera of the phylum Proteobacteria tended to decrease, which is associated with an improved skin condition. Overall, HDB showed clinically proven effects, including skin moisturization with regulation of the skin microbiota.

De novo assembly of Roseomonas mucosa isolated from patients with atopic dermatitis.

Roseomonas mucosa is associated with the normal skin microflora. Here, we present de novo sequence assemblies from R. mucosa isolates obtained from the skin lesions of three atopic dermatitis patients.

De novo assembly of Roseomonas mucosa isolates from healthy human volunteers used to treat atopic dermatitis.

Roseomonas mucosa is a bacterium that is found in the natural microbiota of human skin. Here, we present de novo sequence assemblies from R. mucosa isolated from the skin microflora of three healthy human volunteers that were used to treat atopic dermatitis patients.

Increased diversity of Malassezia species on the skin of Parkinson's disease patients.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by motor disorders and the composition of Lewy bodies (LBs) in the substantia nigra. Due to the lack of a definitive biomarker, the current treatments do not modify the progression of PD. Recently, researchers revealed lipid dysregulation and some potential volatile biomarkers of PD related to a unique odor from PD patients by metabolomics of sebum, which is supposed to cause a potential change for skin microflora. In this study, we identified the 4 Malassezia species in PD patients and compared them with healthy controls. We collected 95 sebum samples (47 PDs and 48 Controls) by cotton swabs and extracted the DNA. The identification of Malassezia species was performed by Nested PCR. Specific primers for each species were used to amplify corresponding yeasts in each sample. M. restricta and M. globosa are the most common species for both groups. The prevalence of M. slooffiae and M. sympodialis were significantly higher in the PD group compared with controls (63.8% vs. 29.1 and 74.5% vs. 54.2% respectively), the binary logistic regression model further indicated that M. slooffiae (OR = 9.358, p < 0.001) was associated with PD. Moreover, the diversity of Malassezia species was significantly greater (3.5 vs. 2.9 species per individual, p = 0.002) in the PD group. Based on our results, we preliminarily observed a change in Malassezia species incidence and diversity on the skin of PD patients, which could be associated with lipid dysregulation; meanwhile, it might also be a noninvasive biomarker for PD.

Skin microbiome in autoimmune pemphigus: a comparative analysis of bacterial diversity in relation to treatment

Background. Autoimmune pemphigus (AP) is a chronic, life-threatening disease of the skin and mucous membranes. Effective therapeutic options are currently available, but mortality in AP patients is higher than in the general population. The leading causes of death are infectious complications. Recent years have revealed the key role of microbiome alteration in a number of skin diseases. There is an increasing number of published studies examining the skin microbiome in patients with AP, but they have a number of limitations and require further research to understand the role of skin microbial composition in the course of AP. Aims: to study the composition of skin microbiome by culture method in patients with AP (in active stage and in remission), to perform correlation analysis of microbiome composition and therapy received. Materials and methods. Experimental prospective comparative study. Forty-four patients with diagnosed AP (16 men, 36.4%; 28 women, 63.6%; mean age 51.5±13.1 years) and 10 controls (7 women, 70%; 3 men, 30%; mean age 40±12.5 years) were included. Patients were enrolled between November 2021 and June 2023 at the V.A. Rakhmanov Clinic of Skin and Venereal Diseases. Results. Seventy-nine skin samples were obtained and analysed. Only bacterial growth was detected in all submitted samples. No statistically significant difference was found between the composition of the microbiome of the unchanged skin of patients with AP in the active stage and in remission and the control group. In patients in the active stage of AP, a significant difference was found between the composition of the microbiome from rash elements and unchanged skin. S. aureus prevails on the skin from rash elements, and S. hominis dominates on unchanged skin. In patients before the start of glucocortlcosteroid (GCS) therapy, a predominance of S. aureus in the samples and a decrease in microbial diversity is noted. In patients receiving GCS therapy, S. hominis and S. epidermidis predominate, and greater microbial diversity is also noted. Conclusions. The study revealed that the skin microbiome from the rash elements of patients with AP undergoes significant changes during the active stage of the disease, mainly due to colonisation of the skin by S. aureus. However, against the background of therapy with systemic GCS there is a tendency to normalisation of skin microflora composition, which demonstrates that there are no differences in the composition of the microbiome of patients in remission of AP and control groups.

Prevalence of Dandruff among the Pupils and Staff of some Selected Public Schools in Katsina State

Dandruff is characterized by patches of loosely attached flakes on the scalp, which are generally accompanied by irritation. malassezia species of the genus restricta and globossa, Staphylococcus species of the genus aureus, and Bacteria of the genus Propiobacterium are components of human skin microflora and etiological agents of dandruff. The purpose of this study was to investigate the prevalence of dandruff, Isolation and identification of the pathogens causing the dandruff infection among secondary school students in Katsina State. The study was a cross-sectional survey conducted with the permission of seven local government areas, namely: Katsina, Funtua, Mani, Kankia, Malunfashi, Dutsin-ma, and Daura. According to the prevalence studies of the selected LGAs, Kankia and Mani Local Governments had the highest prevalence rates of 14.81% and 14.65%, respectively, followed by Daura, Malunfashi, and Funtua with 14.49%, 14.33%, and 14.01%. Dutsinma and Katsina had the lowest prevalence rates, of 13.85% and 13.85%, respectively. Males (51%) were more affected than females (49%), out of the 420 people polled. The prevalence by age shows that the age group 11-20 years has the highest incidence of dandruff infection, with 58.83%, followed by the age groups 1-10 years, with 21.88%, and 21-30 years, with 8.27%. The socioeconomic position of the individuals studied was found to be a risk factor for the occurrence of this disease. The prevalence of dandruff was highest in villages, followed by towns, with 58% and 42%, respectively. To prevent the spread of this disease, the researchers recommend sterilizing barbing and weaving materials.

Differences in the skin microbiota spectrum and parameters of local immunity in the areas of inflammation in skin diseases and healthy people

Alteration of microbiota composition is a trigger, and, sometimes, an etiological factor in the development of chronic skin diseases, e.g., psoriasis or eczema. Recognition of microflora by keratinocytes and immune cells leads to the production of antimicrobial peptides, chemokines and growth factors, which contribute to the differentiation of T lymphocytes to autoaggressive effector cells of Th1, Th17 and Th22 types that implement autoimmune inflammation in the psoriatic plaque. The aim of our work was to study the differences in the skin microbiota spectrum and the parameters of local immunity in capillary blood taken near the focus of inflammation in patients with autoimmune (psoriasis) and allergic (eczema) diseases compared with the parameters of healthy people. 24 patients with psoriasis (group 1), 20 patients with eczema (group 2) and 20 healthy adults (group 3) were examined. Biological materials were taken, i.e., the smears taken with sterile dry swab to the Amies transport medium with activated carbon, and capillary blood was taken in 2 microvets, 200 µL each) from the foci of inflammation on affected skin from the hands of patients, or from the fingers of healthy people. Inoculations of diagnostic media, microscopy with Gram staining and microbial identification were performed in a microbiological analyzer. Immunophenotyping of 22 subsets of mononuclear cells was performed by four-color staining of capillary blood with erythrocyte lysis and evaluation of subsets by a flow cytometer. Cytokines in blood plasma were determined by multiplex method. The spectrum of hand skin microflora of the group 3 was more diverse in the species composition. In patients with psoriasis and eczema, the coccal flora dominated, with a shift towards pathobionts in the microbiota spectrum. Activation of T and B cells, production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-23/IL-17/IL-22 axis cytokines and cytokines – markers of epithelial cell damage (IL-25 and IL-33), as well as anti-inflammatory factors insufficiency were detected. Differences in changing parameters of the local immune status in patients with autoimmune (psoriasis) and allergic (eczema) diseases were revealed, thus reflecting the distinct features of immunopathogenesis in these diseases.

Atopic dermatitis and the human skin microbiota

The skin microbiota is a complex ecosystem consisting of bacteria, fungi and viruses. The role of the human skin microbiota is to maintain homeostasis in the body. Disruption of the balance of the natural composition of the human microbiome can lead to the development of inflammation and infection. Atopic dermatitis is a chronic and recurrent non-infectious, inflammatory dermatosis characterised by erythematous and exfoliative skin lesions, accompanied by pruritus and a tendency to superinfection. Defect in the epidermal barrier, immune dysfunction and changes in the composition of the skin microbiome underlie the pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis. It has been found that the diversity of atopic skin microbiota is significantly reduced, with a decrease in the number of Cutibacterium, Streptococcus, Acinetobacter, Corynebacterium and Prevotella, and a concomitant increase in the percentage of Staphylococcus bacteria, especially S. aureus. It accounts for about 20% of skin microbiome in healthy people, while in patients with atopic dermatitis the percentage of S. aureus can increase up to 30–100%. In addition, there is a positive correlation between S. aureus skin colonisation and disease severity. S. aureus plays a key role in the development of skin inflammation in the course of atopic dermatitis, including through the induction of lymphocyte expansion, release of cytokines, pro-inflammatory lipoproteins, and stimulation of mast cell degranulation. Therefore, properly selected and regular treatment of atopic dermatitis diversifies the skin microflora, often leading to clinical improvement in the patient.