Microcrystalline Cellulose Filler Research Articles

Ultrafiltration membranes for dye wastewater treatment: Utilizing cellulose acetate and microcrystalline cellulose fillers from Ceiba Pentandra

Dye hurts the threat of human health problems and environmental pollution. Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) based membrane is a good material to be used as an dye separation membrane for having the high hydrophilicity of the membrane. It has been successfully isolated from kapok (ceiba pentandra) with characteristic X-ray diffraction patterns and FTIR absorption peaks, which corresponded to the typical peaks of cellulose. The ultrafiltration membrane was made up of a cellulose acetate matrix created using the phase inversion method. Characterization results indicated that the inclusion of MCC derived from kapok led to a reduction in the contact angle from 65 to 52o, and an increase in membrane porosity from 82 to 85%. In the separation of dye, the composite membrane incorporating MCC filler demonstrated superior performance compared to the membrane lacking MCC, manifesting in an elevated water flux from 43 to 84 L/m².h and methylene blue (MB) rejection from 64 to 99%. The use of MCC as a filler in cellulose acetate membranes can enhance the characteristics and performance of the membrane in MB separation.

Study of Citric Acid-Locust Bean Gum as a Glidant to Fillers of Cellulose Derivatives

Citric acid-locust bean gum (CA-LBG) was introduced as an excipient in tablet preparations. CA-LBG is a compound derived from the esterification of citric acid (CA) with locust bean gum (LBG). The experiment aimed to determine the potential and effect of CA-LBG as a glidant on microcrystalline cellulose (MCC). The CA-LBG concentrations in the experiments were 0.5%, 1.0%, 2.0%, and 4.0%. Talc and magnesium stearate (MgS) as a comparison. The mixtures were evaluated for flow rate and angle of repose. The mixture was compressed into tablets weighing 700 mg. Tablets were evaluated for weight, hardness, and friability. The flow rate of the mixture containing CA-LBG 0.5%-4.0% was 12.77 g.sec-1-15.96 g.sec-1. The angle of repose of the mixture containing CA-LBG 0.5%-4.0% is 32.62○-35.52○. The weight of tablets containing CA-LBG 0.5%-4.0% is 700.0 mg-701.2 mg. The hardness of tablets containing CA-LBG 0.5%-4.0% is 6.30 kp-6.90 kp. The friability of tablets containing CA-LBG 0.5%-4.0% is 0.17%-0.36%. The CA-LBG has the potential as a glidant in MCC fillers. Increasing CA-LBG concentration causes the flow rate to increase, the angle of repose to decrease, and the hardness to increase. CA-LBG concentrations of 0.5% and 4.0% reduced tablet friability.

Thermal and Mechanical Performance of 3-Phase Polymer Composite Panels for Structural Applications

The objective of this study is to establish a conceptual framework for fiber-reinforced polymer composite (FRPC) panels designed for structural purposes through the incorporation of a third phase (fillers). The present investigation was aimed to design and fabricate 3-phase polymer composite panels that offer enhanced thermal insulation and strength while maintaining low material and labor expenses. Two types of fibrous reinforcements (jute fabric and glass fabric) of different origins were used as reinforcement; polypropylene (PP) was used as the matrix, and microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) was used as particle reinforcement material. The composite materials were fabricated with different MCC concentrations (0, 2 wt%, and 4 wt%), using a hot compression molding technique. It was found that MCC helped to enhance the mechanical performance of the composite panels, while the thermal conductivity showed a slight reduction due to lower concentrations of MCC used. For polypropylene/glass (PPG) composites, thermal conductivity was reduced from 0.214 to 0.193 W/m·K by the addition of 4% MCC fillers. Similarly, for polypropylene/jute (PPJ) composites, it was reduced from 0.14 to 0.126 W/m·K by 4% MCC fillers. The Charpy impact strength of both PPG and PPJ composites was enhanced by the addition of fillers, and the effect was more significant in the case of PPG (increased from 24.83 to 43.98 kJ/m2 for 4% fillers). Cost analysis of the composite panels was also done, showing PPJ panels to be slightly cheaper as compared to PPG. The findings indicate that the developed composite panels have the potential to serve as partitioning as well as the outer shield of the building due to their effective thermal and mechanical properties.

Effect of alkaline treatment time of fibers and microcrystalline cellulose addition on mechanical properties of unsaturated polyester composites reinforced by cantala fibers

Abstract The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of alkaline treatment and addition of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) on the density, tensile strength, elastic modulus, impact strength, and Poisson’s ratio of unsaturated polyester resin composites reinforced by cantala fibers (UPR-CFs). The fibers were immersed in alkaline solution of 6% NaOH for 0, 3, 6, 9, and 12 h. The composite had cantala fibers (CFs) and MCC volume fraction (v f) of 30 and 5%, respectively. The results showed that the alkaline treatment for 6 h resulted in the highest density, tensile strength, and elastic modulus of the composites, while the highest Poisson’s ratio was achieved in UPR-untreated CF composites. The addition of MCC filler also increased the density, tensile strength, and elastic modulus of the composite significantly. Both alkaline treatment and MCC addition did not significantly affect the impact strength. With the increase in the strength and modulus of elasticity, composites can be applied more widely to structures that bear higher loads.

Injection molding of highly filled microcrystalline cellulose/polycaprolactone composites with the aid of reversible Diels-Alder reaction

To tackle the challenge of producing highly filled polymer composites using the traditional injection molding technique, which is characterized by the fairly high melt viscosity that makes mold filling difficult, the authors propose a solution based on dynamic covalent chemistry. As demonstrated by the proof-of-concept experiments, the 4-arm star-shaped polycaprolactone (PCL) oligomers and microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) are crosslinked by the reversible Diels-Alder (DA) bonds. The flowability of the compounds greatly decreases due to the dissociation of the intercomponent DA bonds at the retro-reaction temperature, and the networked architecture is reconstructed during cooling as a result of the forward DA reaction. Consequently, the high-loading MCC fillers are well distributed in the matrix and covalently bonded to the nearby PCL, forming a striking contrast to the control in which linear PCL acts as the matrix. The DA bonds crosslinked biodegradable PCL composites exhibit decent mechanical strength (20.7 MPa) even at the MCC fraction of 65 wt%, which is superior to those (5–12.2 MPa) of the highly filled PCL composites (with filler contents of 50–63.8 wt%) reported so far. The proposed approach has sufficient expansibility for the fabrication of the highly filled polymer composites constructed by other types of matrix and fillers.

Hybridization effect of functionalized microcrystalline cellulose and liquid acrylonitrile butadiene rubber on epoxy

Toughening epoxy resins by adding different agents has been employed as a way to reduce brittleness in composites. Some hybridization strategies combining liquid rubbers and rigid fillers can be found in the literature, but the pair cellulose-based reinforcement, such as microcrystalline cellulose (MCC), and liquid acrylonitrile butadiene rubber (NBR) is hardly studied. The aim of this work is to investigate the effect of hybridizing MCC and amino-functionalized MCC (MCCSi) with NBR on the thermal, mechanical, and dynamic-mechanical behavior of epoxy. X-ray microtomography showed a good dispersion of MCCSi fillers in epoxy/NBR compared to the non-treated MCC filler. NBR with MCCSi was found to slightly increase the thermal stability of epoxy. The addition of MCC, regardless of the functionalization, decreased tensile strength and elastic modulus, but improved impact strength and toughness properties (KIC). Also, MCCSi composites displayed better dynamic-mechanical behavior, attributed to the enhanced chemical interaction, with a small effect on glass transition temperature.

The Effect of Alkali Treatment and Addition of Microcrystalline Cellulose (MCC) on Physical and Tensile Properties of Ramie/Polyester Laminated Composites

The aim of this research is to investigate the effect of alkali treatment of ramie fibers and addition of MCC on the properties of ramie/polyester laminated composites. The alkali treatment was performed using NaOH solution at a room temperature. The laminated composites was manufactured using a vacuum infusion method for three layers of treated woven ramie fibers in the polyester matrix. The MCC (microcrystalline cellulose) powder 0.5 wt.% was added into the polyester resin and then mixed by a mechanical stirrer at a rotation speed of 350 rpm for 5 minutes. The physical characterization was evaluated using FTIR, XRD, and SEM methods. The tensile test of a single fiber and laminated composites was carried out according to the ASTM D3379 and ASTM D3039, respectively. The experimental results show that the XRD of treated fiber with 5 wt.% NaOH solution has the highest crystallinity index of 66.3%. It impacts the increase of tensile strength and elastic modulus of single ramie fiber by 18% and 55%, respectively. The addition of MCC into the polyester matrix of laminated composite can increase the tensile strength and elastic modulus by 18% and 21%, respectively, compared to the untreated laminated composite. In addition, the treated fibers laminated composite can improve the adhesion and chemical bonding between fibers and polyester as a matrix. The addition of MCC filler may prevent the initial propagation of cracks on interlaminar surfaces of laminated composite.

PBAT Based Composites Reinforced with Microcrystalline Cellulose Obtained from Softwood Almond Shells.

This study explores the processability, mechanical, and thermal properties of biocompostable composites based on poly (butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) as polymer matrix and microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) derived from softwood almond (Prunus dulcis) shells (as-MCC) as filler at two different weight concentration, i.e., 10 wt% and 20 wt%. The materials were processed by melt mixing and a commercial MCC (c-MCC) was used as filler comparison. The fibrillar shape of as-MCC particles was found to change the rheological behavior of PBAT, particularly at the highest concentration. The melt mixing processing allowed obtaining a uniform dispersion of both kinds of fillers, slightly reducing the L/D ratio of as-MCC fibers. The as-MCC particles led to a higher increase of the elastic modulus of PBAT if compared to the c-MCC counterparts. Both the MCC fillers caused a drastic reduction of the elongation at break, although it was higher than 120% also at the highest filler concentrations. DSC analysis revealed that both MCC fillers poorly affected the matrix crystallinity, although as-MCC induced a slight PBAT crystallinity increase from 8.8% up to 10.9% for PBAT/as-MCC 20%. Therefore, this work demonstrates the great potential of MCC particles derived from almond shells as filler for biocompostable composites fabrication.

Obtaining and Characterization of Biodegradable Composites Reinforced with Microcrystalline Cellulose Fillers

Obtaining and Characterization of Biodegradable Composites Reinforced with Microcrystalline Cellulose Fillers

Optimasi Pembuatan Film Biodegradabel dari Komposit Pati Sagu – MCC yang Dimodifikasi dengan Asam Sitrat

Optimization is a way to find variable values that are considered optimal, effective, and efficient to achieve the desired results. The approach that is more often used for optimization problems with multi-variables is the desirability function. The components carried out by the optimization are microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) (x1), citric acid (x2), sorbitol (x3) with the response are Tensile Strength (Y1), Elongation (Y2), Modulus young (Y3), Biodegradability (Y4), and Water Uptake (Y5). Optimization is done by using Design Expert 10.0.1 Software. Through Desirability Function analysis, the optimum treatment composition was obtained at the MCC filler variation of 18% w / w starch, citric acid 3% w / w starch, and sorbitol 33% w / w starch with the optimum response value predicted for tensile strength (Y1) = 11.38 MPa; Elongation (Y2) = 13.54%; Young's modulus (Y3) = 118.05 MPa; Biodegradability (Y4) = 46.89%; and Water Uptake (Y5) = 52.13%. The combined desirability value is 0.551

Properties and behavior under environmental factors of isosorbide-plasticized starch reinforced with microcrystalline cellulose biocomposites

Green biocomposites based on corn starch plasticized with isosorbide and glycerol and filled with microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) were processed. The structural interactions, dynamomechanical properties, water absorption, and soil biodegradability were investigated by different techniques considering the effect of the type and amount of plasticizer and the MCC addition. The changes along the time of the structural interactions and the dynamomechanical properties of these materials and the influence of the retrogradation phenomenon were also studied.The use of isosorbide as plasticizer instead of glycerol improved the stiffness, the water absorption and the biodegradation rate of thermoplastic starch (TPS). Moreover, no evidence of retrogradation for isosorbide was observed. An isosorbide content of 35% and the addition of MCC filler enhanced in a greater extent these properties with a complete biodegradability in 7 month. These green biocomposites can be an alternative for food packaging applications.

Preparation of thermoplastic polyurethane-based biocomposites through injection molding: Effect of the filler type and content

The effects of lignocellulosic filler type and filler loading levels were investigated relative to selected properties of thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU)-based composites. Teak wood (TK), rice husks (RH), and microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) were used as lignocellulosic fillers at 15 wt% and 30 wt% filler loading levels. Test specimens were manufactured using both extrusion and injection molding, except for abrasion resistance samples that were manufactured using a compression molding process. Density, tensile, flexural, and impact properties, and hardness and abrasion resistance values, of the specimens were determined. The composites’ morphology was studied using scanning electron microscopy analysis; results showed all filler types and filler loading levels were affected by the TPU’s density and mechanical properties. The TPU composites were successfully produced using TK, RH, and MCC as lignocellulosic fillers. Regardless of filler type, addition of 15% filler to TPU yielded excellent mechanical properties. With 30% MCC filler, composite properties increased due to their higher surface area, while properties of TK- and RH-containing specimens were, at 30%, reduced. There was a proportional correlation between hardness and modulus, with both increasing with a rising filler loading level. Abrasion resistance of TPU decreased with the presence of filler. Regardless of filler type, abrasion resistance continued to drop at higher filler loading levels. Scanning electron micrographs showed better MCC distribution in the TPU matrix.

Modification of Sago Starch-Based Bioplastic Using Citric Acid with Variation Plasticizers Glycerol and Sorbitol: Properties and Biodegradability Studies

Bioplastic or biodegradable plastic is one of alternative replacement to conventional plastic that has the potential to harmful to the environment. One of the raw material that has the potential to be made into bioplastic is sago starch because it has ability to degraded. The general purpose of this research is to determine the characteristics of sago-based bioplastic by modified the citric acid, microcrystalline cellulose filler, plasticizer sorbitol and glycerol. The synthesis method is casting of starch, water, filler Micro Cristalline Cellulose (MCC) with varying plasticizer sorbitol and glycerol with composition of filler is (15-25 % w/w), composition of plasticizer (25–
 35 % w/w), and composition citric acid (3-9 % w/w). The results showed that the treatment with the addition of
 MCC fillers, plasticizers, and citric acid are contributed to the mechanical properties produced. In the best process conditions (20% w/w MCC filler, plasticizer sorbitol 30% w/w with citric acid 0.95% w/w) give result Tensile strength 15.84 MPa, Elongation 9.32%, Young's Modulus 171.2 MPa, Biodegradation 51.65%, and wavelength absorption 1722.51 cm-1

Wetting and localization of compatibilizers in biocomposites: A nanoscale evaluation and effects on physical properties

To elucidate the efficacies that have been empirically interpreted on compatibilizers, the interfacial adhesion in cellulosic filler/polypropylene (PP) biocomposites was investigated at the nanoscale. Maleic anhydride-modified PP (MAPP) with different weight fractions (wMA) of acid-modified groups was added as the compatibilizer. Two nanoscale aspects were examined: the degree of wetting of the compatibilizer on the microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) filler and the extent of compatibilizer localization. The degree of wetting was systematically evaluated via differential scanning calorimetry and was found to increase with wMA. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that MAPP was located near MCC particles in MCC/MAPP/PP composites via thermal kneading, while only a part of the loaded MAPP was localized at the of MCC/PP interface. The MAPP layer thickness was ~50 nm and independent of wMA. The increased degree of wetting with increasing wMA improved the rheological reinforcement effect, the withdrawal of MCC filler on the fracture surface, and the mechanical properties. Thus, MCC was probably tightly coated with the MAPP with high wMA and the interfacial tension with the PP matrix was decreased.

Electrospun nanofiber-based niflumic acid capsules with superior physicochemical properties

The aim of this study was to assess whether nanofibrous drug mats have potential as delivery systems for poorly water-soluble drugs. Amorphous nanofiber mats from a model poorly water-soluble active pharmaceutical ingredient (API), niflumic acid, together with the polymer excipient, polyvinyl pyrrolidine, were prepared by nozzle-free electrospinning. This technique offers a scalable way for drug formulation, and by increasing the surface area of the drug, the dissolution rate and therefore bioavailability of the API can be improved. In this study, both the amount of the dissolved active ingredient and the dissolution kinetics has been improved significantly when the nanofibrous mats were used in the drug formulation. A 15-fold increase in the dissolved amount of the produced amorphous niflumic acid nanofiber was observed compared to the dissolved amount of the raw drug within the first 15 min. Capsule formulation was made by mixing the electrospun nanofibers with a microcrystalline cellulose filler agent. When comparing the dissolution rate of the capsule formulation on the market with the nanofibrous capsules, a 14-fold increase was observed in the dissolved drug amount within the first 15 min.

Processing and characterization of polyols plasticized-starch reinforced with microcrystalline cellulose

Biocomposites suitable for short-life applications such as food packaging were prepared by melt processing and investigated. Biocomposites studied are wheat starch plasticized with two different molecular weight polyols (glycerol and sorbitol) and reinforced with various amounts of microcrystalline cellulose. The effect of the plasticizer type and the filler amount on the processing properties, the crystallization behavior and morphology developed for the materials, and the influence on thermal stability, dynamic mechanical properties and water absorption behavior were investigated. Addition of microcrystalline cellulose led to composites with good filler-matrix adhesion where the stiffness and resistance to humidity absorption were improved. The use of sorbitol as a plasticizer of starch also improved the stiffness and water uptake behavior of the material as well as its thermal stability. Biodegradable starch-based materials with a wide variety of properties can be tailored by varying the polyol plasticizer type and/or by adding microcrystalline cellulose filler.

Tensile and Morphological Properties of Hybrid Montmorillonite/Microcrystalline Cellulose Filled Polylactic Acid Composites: Effect of Filler Ratio

The objective of this study is to investigate the effect of partial replacement of montmorillonite (MMT) with microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) on the tensile and morphology properties of polylactic acid (PLA) composites. PLA composites reinforced with hybrid MMT/MCC were prepared by solution casting. Based on our previous study, tensile strength exhibited that the optimum MMT content in the PLA/MMT is 5 phr. Therefore, partial replacement of MMT with MCC was performed at 5 phr of filler content in order to produce PLA/MMT/MCC hybrid composites. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy revealed some polar interaction between fillers and PLA matrix. Young’s modulus of the PLA/MMT/MCC hybrid composites increased gradually with increasing MCC filler in the hybrid composites and was higher than PLA/MMT nanocomposites. However, the highest tensile strength of hybrid composites was obtained at 4 phr MMT and 1 phr of MCC filler (~26 MPa), which was lower than optimum formulation of PLA/MMT nanocomposites. Interestingly, the percent elongation at break of the hybrid composites were higher than that of PLA/MMT nanocomposites; increased significantly from ~10 to ~58 %. Field emission scanning electron microscopy indicated the aggregation of MCC and the presence of some cracks in the PLA hybrid composites, resulted in decrease of the tensile strength.

Effect of microcrystalline cellulose on biodegradability, tensile and morphological properties of montmorillonite reinforced polylactic acid nanocomposites

The objective of this study is to investigate the effects of incorporating microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) on montmorillonite (MMT) reinforced polylactic acid (PLA) nanocomposites prepared by solution casting method. The biodegradability, tensile and morphological properties of PLA hybrid composites were investigated using soil burial test, tensile testing machine, field emission scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and optical microscopy. In addition, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was used to observe the interactions between fillers and PLA in the hybrid composites. Various amounts of MCC were added to the optimum formulation which was 5 phr of MMT to produce PLA/MMT/MCC hybrid composites. The biodegradability of hybrid composites increased compared to nanocomposite with 5 phr MMT content and neat PLA. Interestingly, the ductility of PLA/MMT/MCC hybrid composites increased significantly with the addition of 1 phr MCC filler. FTIR analysis revealed some interactions between PLA and both fillers in the hybrid composites. X-ray diffraction and TEM analyses revealed that incorporation of MCC filler into optimum formulation of PLA/MMT nanocomposites slightly decreased the interlayer spacing of MMT in the PLA/MMT/ MCC hybrid composites.

Structure, morphology and mechanical behaviour of novel bio-based polyurethane composites with microcrystalline cellulose

The aim of this work was to obtain bio-based polyurethane composites using biocomponents such as, bio-glycol, modified natural oil-based polyol, and microcrystalline cellulose (MCC). The prepolymer method was used to prepare the bio-based polyurethane matrix. Prepolymer synthesised from 4,4′-diphenylmethane diisocyanate and a polyol mixture containing 75 wt% commercial polyether and 25 wt% hydroxylated soybean oils (H3) was later subjected to chain extension polymerization with bio-1,3-propanediol acting as a chain extender . Different composites were produced by dispersing 5, 10, 15 and 20 wt% of microcrystalline cellulose powder in the polyurethane matrix. The polymerization reaction was catalyzed with 1,4-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane. The influence of MCC content on the structure and the mechanical and thermo-mechanical properties of the obtained bio-based polyurethane composites was investigated. The FTIR analysis demonstrated that the addition of MCC did not significantly change the chemical structure of the obtained composites. The SEM images showed good interfacial adhesion between the bio-filler and the partially bio-based matrix of the composites. The results of thermo-mechanical analysis demonstrated that the application of MCC filler affected the storage and loss moduli. The tensile strength and elongation at break decreased with increasing MCC content. Moreover, the addition of MCC improved the hardness of the obtained environmentally friendly materials.

Improvement of Paper Properties of Rice Straw Pulps by Microcrystalline Cellulose/Calcium Carbonate

Rice straw is a locally available lignocellulosic material. In this study rice straw was pretreated by soaking it in water for 48 hours at room temperature. The pretreated straw was cooked in 5% NaOH at 100∫C and atmospheric pressure.The structure and mechanical properties of paper made from cooked pulp was investigated. Hydrogen peroxide as a bleaching agent was applied to the pulp to enhance its brightness level in a single stage process in the presence of sodium hydroxide and magnesium sulfate. Rice straw pulp, bleached using 2% hydrogen peroxide solution, was selected to prepare microcrystalline cellulose (MCC). The MCC was characterized by 45.5% crystallinity and nano in size vide XRD and TEM respectively. Microcrystalline cellulose and calcium carbonate were added to unbleached pulp as fillers. Air permeability of filled paper was improved in the presence of MCC more than in the presence of calcium carbonate alone. Optical properties and water permeabil ity of filled pulp showed improvements in the presence of microcrystalline cellulose filler compared to unfilled pulp.