Microbial Overgrowth Research Articles

Effectiveness of Azadirachta indica and Ocimum gratissimum for Acne Vulgaris: A Literature Review

Acne vulgaris is a common dermatological condition characterized by inflammation of the pilosebaceous units, predominantly affecting adolescents and young adults. Its multifactorial etiology involves hormonal imbalances, microbial overgrowth, and environmental factors, leading to increased sebum production and inflammation. Conventional treatments often vary in efficacy and tolerability, driving interest in alternative therapies to reduce the severity and recurrence of lesions and enhance appearance, the acne severity. This literature review explores the therapeutic potential of two herbal remedies, Azadirachta indica (Neem) and Ocimum gratissimum (African basil), known for their antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. Azadirachta indica is recognized for its rich phytochemical profile, including compounds like nimbin and azadirachtin, which effectively combat acne pathogens such as Cutibacterium acnes. Meanwhile, Ocimum gratissimum exhibits significant antimicrobial and antioxidant activities, contributing to skin healing and sebum regulation. The combined use of these herbs offers a holistic approach to acne management, targeting multiple aspects of its pathogenesis, including inflammation and microbial imbalance. The therapeutic benefits of Azadirachta indica and Ocimum gratissimum highlight their valuable role in advancing dermatological care and offer promising prospects for individuals seeking holistic and plant-based solutions for acne management. This review emphasizes the potential and effectiveness of Azadirachta indica and Ocimum gratissimum in advancing dermatological care and providing effective, plant-based solutions for acne management. Keywords: Acne vulgaris, azadirachta indica, clove basil, neem, ocimum gratissimum, treatment

Effect of Staphylococcus aureus colonization and immune defects on the pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis.

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a common and recurrent skin disease characterized by skin barrier dysfunction, inflammation and chronic pruritus, with wide heterogeneity in terms of age of onset, clinical course and persistence over the lifespan. Although the pathogenesis of the disease are unclear, epidermal barrier dysfunction, immune and microbial dysregulation, and environmental factors are known to be critical etiologies in AD pathology. The skin microbiota represents an ecosystem consisting of numerous microbial species that interact with each other as well as host epithelial cells and immune cells. Although the skin microbiota benefits the host by supporting the basic functions of the skin and preventing the colonization of pathogens, disruption of the microbial balance (dysbiosis) can cause skin diseases such as AD. Although AD is a dermatological disease, recent evidence has shown that changes in microbiota composition in the skin and intestine contribute to the pathogenesis of AD. Environmental factors that contribute to skin barrier dysfunction and microbial dysbiosis in AD include allergens, diet, irritants, air pollution, epigenetics and microbial exposure. Knowing the microbial combination of intestin, as well as the genetic and epigenetic determinants associated with the development of autoantibodies, may help elucidate the pathophysiology of the disease. The skin of patients with AD is characterized by microbial dysbiosis as a result of reduced microbial diversity and overgrowth of the pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus. Recent studies have revealed the importance of building a strong immune response against microorganisms during childhood and new mechanisms of microbial community dynamics in modulating the skin microbiome. Numerous microorganisms are reported to modulate host response through communication with keratinocytes, specific immune cells and adipocytes to improve skin health and barrier function. This growing insight into bioactive substances in the skin microbiota has led to novel biotherapeutic approaches targeting the skin surface for the treatment of AD. This review will provide an updated overview of the skin microbiota in AD and its complex interaction with immune response mechanisms, as well as explore possible underlying mechanisms in the pathogenesis of AD and provide insights into new therapeutic developments for the treatment of AD. It also focuses on restoring skin microbial homeostasis, aiming to reduce inflammation by repairing the skin barrier.

Fibroblast Growth Factor 19 Alters Bile Acids to Induce Dysbiosis in Mice With Alcohol-Induced Liver Disease

Excessive alcohol consumption can lead to alcohol-associated liver disease, a spectrum of conditions ranging from steatosis to fibrosis and cirrhosis. Bile acids regulate metabolic pathways by binding to cellular and nuclear receptors, and they also interact with the gut microbiome to control microbial overgrowth. Fibroblast growth factor 19 (FGF-19) is an ileum-derived hormone induced and released in response to bile acid activation of the nuclear receptor farnesoid X receptor. FGF-19 signaling is dysregulated with ethanol consumption and is increased in patients with alcoholic hepatitis. Here, we examined the effects of FGF-19 in a mouse model of chronic+ binge ethanol feeding. After injection of adeno-associated virus-green fluorescent protein or AAV-FGF-19, female C57BL/6J mice were pair-fed a Lieber DeCarli liquid diet (5% v/v) or control diet for 10 days and were given a bolus gavage of 5% ethanol or maltose control to represent a binge drinking episode. Tissues were collected for analysis 9 hours after the binge. Chronic+ binge ethanol feeding induced steatosis regardless of FGF-19 expression. Interestingly, FGF-19 and ethanol resulted in significantly increased liver inflammation, as measured by Il6, Tgfβ, and Tnfα, compared with ethanol alone. Both ethanol and FGF-19 decreased bile acid synthesis, and FGF-19 significantly reduced secondary bile acids, leading to overgrowth of specific pathogenic bacteria including Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, and Clostridium perfringens. Dysregulation of FGF-19 and consequent changes in bile acid synthesis and composition during alcohol consumption may be a contributing factor to alcohol-induced liver disease and dysbiosis.

Dynamics of morphofunctional parameters in experimental pseudomonosis of rabbits

Among the most frequently reported diseases of rabbits, the main place is occupied by diseases of bacterial etiology, the pathogens of which are characterized by multidrug resistance. The aim of the study was to analyze the dynamics of morphometric indicators during experimental infection of rabbits with Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteria. When assessing colonization resistance of organs, the following indicators were taken into account: colonization index, ratio of the number of microorganisms isolated from nasal cavity washes, contents of cecum of clinically healthy and sick animals. Significant changes in morphological parameters (p 0.05) were revealed during the isolation of P. aeruginosa from blood, lymph nodes, spleen, liver, and kidneys of sick rabbits. Overgrowth of isolates producing adhesive antigens, hemolysins, bacteriocins should be considered as prognostic markers of connective tissue dysplasia. The initiation, development, and outcome of microbial overgrowth syndrome are mediated by morphofunctional changes in compensatory mechanisms of mucociliary clearance system and colonization resistance.

Management of the human hair follicle microbiome by a synthetic odorant

BackgroundHuman scalp hair follicles (HFs) engage in olfactory receptor (OR)-dependent chemosensation. Activation of olfactory receptor family 2 subfamily AT member 4 (OR2AT4) by the synthetic, sandalwood-like odorant Sandalore® up-regulated HF antimicrobial peptide expression of dermcidin (DCD), which had previously been thought to be produced exclusively by sweat and sebaceous glands. ObjectivesTo understand if intrafollicular DCD production can be stimulated by a commonly used cosmetic odorant, thus altering human HF microbiome composition in a clinically beneficial manner. MethodsDCD expression was compared between fresh-frozen scalp biopsies and microdissected, full-length scalp HFs, organ-cultured in the presence/absence of the OR2AT4 agonist, Sandalore® and/or antibiotics and/or the competitive OR2AT4 antagonist, Phenirat®. Amplicon-based sequencing and microbial growth assays were performed to assess how this treatment affected the HF microbiome. ResultsSynthetic odorant treatment upregulated epithelial DCD expression and exerted antimicrobial activity in human HFs ex vivo. Combined antibiotic and odorant treatment, during an ex vivo dysbiosis event, prevented HF tissue damage and favoured a more physiological microbiome composition. Sandalore®-conditioned medium, containing higher DCD content, favoured Staphylococcus epidermidis and Malassezia restricta over S. aureus and M. globosa, while exhibiting antimicrobial activity against Cutibacterium acnes. These effects were reversed by co-administration of Phenirat®. ConclusionsWe provide the first proof-of-principle that a cosmetic odorant impacts the human HF microbiome by up-regulating antimicrobial peptide production in an olfactory receptor-dependent manner. Specifically, a synthetic sandalwood-like odorant stimulates intrafollicular DCD production, likely via OR2AT4, and thereby controls microbial overgrowth. Thus, deserving further exploration as an adjuvant therapeutic principle in the management of folliculitis and dysbiosis-associated hair diseases.

FRESHWATER STROMATOLITES FROM AN EARLY PERMIAN WETLAND (MANEBACH, THURINGIAN-FOREST BASIN, GERMANY): STRUCTURE, DEVELOPMENT, AND PALEOENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT

Abstract Fossil stromatolites enclosing structurally preserved land plant remains have rarely been documented and studied in detail. Permineralized woody Tylodendron sp. conifer axes (slender stems, branches) from a lacustrine sedimentary sequence in the lower Permian fossil Lagerstätte of Manebach (Thuringian-Forest Basin, central Germany) are frequently surrounded by stromatolites that consist of successive, usually asymmetrical microbial layers. The stromatolites show various growth forms ranging from laminar to palisadic. They developed in stagnant water from microbial overgrowth dominated by slender, unbranched sessile cyanobacterial filaments aligned vertically into tufts or turf-like stands. Interspersed among the filaments were other filamentous and coccoid microorganisms. Preservation of the Tylodendron axes can be exquisite and sometimes even includes extraxylary tissues containing remains of fungi, suggesting that stromatolite formation began soon after the axes had entered the water and were perhaps even conducive to their preservation. Structurally similar fossil microbialitic structures from elsewhere likewise demonstrate that they were effective in preserving plant morphology. The Manebach stromatolites and the plant remains they contain contribute to a more accurate understanding of the complex biological processes in late Paleozoic lake ecosystems.

Microporosity evolution and destruction in the Jurassic Arab D reservoir, Qatar

Core samples were collected from three wells, one onshore and two offshore, from Qatar’s Upper Jurassic Arab D reservoir. The samples were subjected to multiproxy petrographic and chemical analyses to identify their micro- and nanoporosity types and understand their evolution and destruction. Based on the petrographic and petrophysical properties of studied rocks, the Arab D succession was divided into seven rock types. Primary microporosity includes intergranular and interplanar, while secondary types include vuggy, intercrystalline, moldic, dissolution, pyrite displacement, microfracture, and microbial boring. Primary micropores were found mainly between the micrite grains in the lime mudstone facies, between the grains or the plates of clay minerals. Secondary micropores result from open and closed diagenetic systems. The open diagenetic system led to the development of dissolution and moldic micropores, while the closed system created pyrite displacement and boring porosity. Mechanical stress due to crystal growth or displacement generated microfractures. Micropores were destroyed either by cementation, clay minerals growth, dolomitization, or microbial pustular overgrowth. Microporosity was important in quantity and varied in nature in the mud-supported rocks. They are similar to macropores in grain-supported sediments but of less importance. The complex lithology of the studied rocks has significantly influenced the development and destruction of the porosity system of the Arab Formation.

Association between Gut Dysbiosis and the Occurrence of SIBO, LIBO, SIFO and IMO.

Gut microbiota is the aggregate of all microorganisms in the human digestive system. There are 1014 CFU/mL of such microorganisms in the human body, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, archaea and protozoa. The Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes bacteria phyla comprise 90% of the human gut microbiota. The microbiota support the healthy functioning of the human body by helping with digestion (mainly via short-chain fatty acids and amino acids) and producing short-chain fatty acids. In addition, it exhibits many physiological functions, such as forming the intestinal epithelium, intestinal integrity maintenance, the production of vitamins, and protection against pathogens. An altered composition or the number of microorganisms, known as dysbiosis, disrupts the body's homeostasis and can lead to the development of inflammatory bowel disease, irritable bowel syndrome, and metabolic diseases such as diabetes, obesity and allergies. Several types of disruptions to the gut microbiota have been identified: SIBO (Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth), LIBO (Large Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth), SIFO (Small Intestinal Fungal Overgrowth), and IMO (Intestinal Methanogen Overgrowth). General gastrointestinal problems such as abdominal pain, bloating, gas, diarrhoea and constipation are the main symptoms of dysbiosis. They lead to malabsorption, nutrient deficiencies, anaemia and hypoproteinaemia. Increased lipopolysaccharide (LPS) permeability, stimulating the inflammatory response and resulting in chronic inflammation, has been identified as the leading cause of microbial overgrowth in the gut. The subject literature is extensive but of limited quality. Despite the recent interest in the gut microbiome and its disorders, more clinical research is needed to determine the pathophysiology, effective treatments, and prevention of small and large intestinal microbiota overgrowth. This review was designed to provide an overview of the available literature on intestinal microbial dysbiosis (SIBO, LIBO, SIFO and IMO) and to determine whether it represents a real threat to human health.

IgA in human health and diseases: Potential regulator of commensal microbiota.

Gut microbiota has extensive and tremendous impacts on human physiology and pathology. The regulation of microbiota is therefore a cardinal problem for the mutualistic relationship, as both microbial overgrowth and excessive immune reactions toward them could potentially be detrimental to host homeostasis. Growing evidence suggests that IgA, the most dominant secretory immunoglobulin in the intestine, regulates the colonization of commensal microbiota, and consequently, the microbiota-mediated intestinal and extra-intestinal diseases. In this review, we discuss the interactions between IgA and gut microbiota particularly relevant to human pathophysiology. We review current knowledge about how IgA regulates gut microbiota in humans and about the molecular mechanisms behind this interaction. We further discuss the potential role of IgA in regulating human diseases by extrapolating experimental findings, suggesting that IgA can be a future therapeutic strategy that functionally modulates gut microbiota.

Spontaneous Intragastric Balloon Hyperinflation Is Probably Due to Microbial Overgrowth of the Filling Liquid.

Spontaneous Intragastric Balloon Hyperinflation Is Probably Due to Microbial Overgrowth of the Filling Liquid.

Antimicrobial Formulation of Chrysopogon zizanioides Essential Oil in an Emulsified Lotion for Acne.

Acne is a skin condition arising from excess sebum production and microbial overgrowth within the pilosebaceous unit. Several commercial essential oils have shown promising activity against acne-related pathogens. Due to their volatility and thermal instability, the formulation of essential oils into commercial products remains a pharmaceutical challenge. Thus, this study aimed to develop a viable anti-acne topical treatment as an oil-in-water emulsified lotion to overcome these challenges. Chrysopogon zizanioides (vetiver) displayed noteworthy antimicrobial activity with a mean minimum inhibitory concentration of 0.14 mg/mL against Cutibacterium acnes, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, and Streptococcus pyogenes. Emulsified lotions containing C. zizanioides were developed through the hydrophilic-lipophilic balance approach. At tested hydrophilic-lipophilic balance values of 8, 9, and 10, C. zizanioides emulsified lotions displayed maximum stability at hydrophilic-lipophilic balance 9 with a minimum change in mean droplet size and polydispersity index of 20.61 and 33.33%, respectively, over 84 days. The C. zizanioides emulsified lotion at optimum hydrophilic-lipophilic balance 9 completely inhibited the growth of C. acnes and killed S. aureus, S. epidermidis, and S. pyogenes within 24 h. Additionally, the lotion retained antimicrobial activity against these test micro-organisms over the 84-day stability test period. Thus, the C. zizanioides emulsified lotion demonstrated physical stability and antimicrobial efficiency, making it an ideal natural product anti-acne treatment.

Regulation of airway immunity by epithelial miRNAs.

The airway epithelium is essential to protect the host from inhaled pathogens and particles. It maintains immune homeostasis and mediates tissue repair after injury. Inflammatory diseases of the airways are associated with failure of epithelial functions, including loss of barrier integrity that results in increased tissue permeability and immune activation; excessive mucus secretion and impaired mucociliary clearance that leads to airflow obstruction and microbial overgrowth; and dysregulation of cellular signals that promotes inflammation and alters tissue structure and airway reactivity. MicroRNAs play crucial roles in mounting appropriate cellular responses to environmental stimuli and preventing disease, using a common machinery and mechanism to regulate gene expression in epithelial cells, immune cells of hematopoietic origin, and other cellular components of the airways. Respiratory diseases are accompanied by dramatic changes in epithelial miRNA expression that drive persistent immune dysregulation. In this review, we discuss responses of the epithelium that promote airway immunopathology, with a focus on miRNAs that contribute to the breakdown of essential epithelial functions. We emphasize the emerging role of miRNAs in regulation of epithelial responses in respiratory health and their value as diagnostic and therapeutic targets.

Diseases and histopathological findings from lesional pinnae of 10 bats

AbstractPinnae are vital structures for echolocation and survival in many species of bats. Pinnal lesions have been described as common in captive bats, but information on specific diseases affecting the pinnae is scarce. A collection of histological sections of lesional pinnae from 10 bats, archived by bat conservation centers worldwide, was examined to identify potential aetiologies of disease. No neoplastic changes were seen but all pinnae showed inflammation, most commonly intraepidermal pustular dermatitis, deep perivascular dermatitis, nodular and/or diffuse dermatitis, and panniculitis. All bats with deep inflammation had concurrent pinnal perichondritis and cartilage necrosis. Microbial overgrowth was frequent, and pyoderma was confirmed in two bats based on histopathological and culture findings. Although no single aetiological agent was identified, deep inflammation was common and severe, highlighting the potential detriment to affected bats and the need for future study of these delicate structures.

Preventive use of a topical anti-inflammatory glucocorticoid in atopic dogs without clinical sign of otitis does not affect ear canal microbiota and mycobiota.

Otitis externa is associated with a lack of bacterial/fungal diversity in atopic dermatitis. Clinical experience has shown that use of topical corticosteroids in the ear canal (EC) can prevent otitis. No data are available on the impact of this treatment on the EC microbiota. To observe the bacterial/fungal diversity in the EC and the clinical effect of topical corticosteroids administered over a four week period in atopic dogs without active otitis. Ten atopic dogs without active otitis. Mometasone was applied in the right EC, while the left was used as control. A clinical and cytological evaluation of the EC was performed. Swabs of each EC were analysed using next-generation sequencing methods. At the beginning of the trial, variations in microbiota and mycobiota were observed between dogs and also within individuals. Statistically, no significant difference was observed in alpha and beta diversity between the treated and the untreated group over time. Clinically, right and left EC diversities were no different at Day (D)28 (P=0.28). A significant difference was noted between D0 and D28 for the treated ears (P=0.012) and not for the untreated ears (P=0.63). No cytological evidence of microbes was found for treated ECs at D28. These data suggest that the use of topical corticosteroids as proactive treatment is unlikely to increase the risk of secondary microbial overgrowth. The positive clinical effect of this proactive treatment seems to be supported through cytological and otoscopic improvement.

Putative Role of Chloroquine In Amelioration of DSS Induced

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic ulceroinflammatory condition primarily confined with in colonic mucosa with variable distortion of the colonic architecture. It is associated with microbial overgrowth such as E.coli , S. typhi .However Chloroquine acts on these microbes . In our present study the anticolitic effects of Chloroquine in treatment with the DSS induced model for UC in mice were examined. Male mice of age 7 weeks are chosen .They are assigned into different groups .Negative control groups treated with normal saline solution ,positive control group treated with DSS5%, standard group treated with Balsalazide 4mg/kg & DSS 5% , Test(1) group treated with Chloroquine 6mg/kg, Test(2) group treated with Chloroquine 8mg/kg, Test(3) group treated with Chloroquine 10 mg/kg then we performed different parameters such as DAI, Oxidative damage assessment, MPO Assessment and Histopathological evaluation. The results have showed that Chloroquine has significant activity against DSS(5%) induced colitis when compared to the experimental control, with near normalization of colon architecture. Tissue oxidative stress was reduced with significant improvement in tissue levels of MDA, GSH, SOD and CAT .Furthermore,significant improvement in levels of myeloperoxidase (MPO) was observed. It is concluded that Chloroquine(10mg/kg) has got potent activity against DSS(5%) induced ulcerative colitis(UC) due to its anti inflammatory antioxidant properties.

Optimal Frequency for Changing Single-Use Enteral Delivery Sets in Infants after Congenital Heart Surgery: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Objective We aimed to assess the optimal frequency for changing single-use enteral delivery sets during postoperative enteral feeding in infants with congenital heart disease (CHD). Methods We enrolled 120 CHD infants who were fed using an enteral nutrition pump directly connected to a milk bottle with a single-use enteral delivery set in a four-arm randomized controlled trial (ChiCTR2000039544). Patients were randomized into four groups based on the replacement frequency of the enteral delivery set (6 h, 12 h, 18 h, and 24 h groups). The primary outcome was the percentage of contaminated enteral delivery sets (overgrowth of microbiota and colonization of pathogenic bacteria). Secondary outcomes included evidence of infection, gastrointestinal tolerance, intestinal microflora dysbiosis, and healthcare costs. Results The percentages of microbial overgrowth detected in the 6 h, 12 h, 18 h, and 24 h groups were 6.7%, 30.0%, 46.7%, and 80%, respectively (P < 0.001). Significant differences were observed between the 6 h and 18 h groups (P < 0.001), the 6 h and 24 h groups (P < 0.001), and the 18 h and 24 h groups (P = 0.007). Meanwhile, pathogenic bacterial colonization was detected in 0, 4, 6, and 11 delivery sets in the 6 h, 12 h, 18 h, and 24 h groups, respectively (P = 0.002). No difference in clinical symptoms was found among the four groups. The total cost per patient in the 12 h group and the 18 h group was 340.2 RMB and 226.8 RMB, respectively. Conclusion Taking into consideration both microbial overgrowth and cost-effectiveness, the results of this study indicate that for children receiving continuous enteral feeding following CHD surgery, the optimal frequency for changing the single-use enteral delivery set when formula reconstituted from powder is used is 18 hours.

The Relationship Between Microbiomes and Selective Regimes in the Sponge Genus Ircinia.

Sponges are often densely populated by microbes that benefit their hosts through nutrition and bioactive secondary metabolites; however, sponges must simultaneously contend with the toxicity of microbes and thwart microbial overgrowth. Despite these fundamental tenets of sponge biology, the patterns of selection in the host sponges’ genomes that underlie tolerance and control of their microbiomes are still poorly understood. To elucidate these patterns of selection, we performed a population genetic analysis on multiple species of Ircinia from Belize, Florida, and Panama using an FST-outlier approach on transcriptome-annotated RADseq loci. As part of the analysis, we delimited species boundaries among seven growth forms of Ircinia. Our analyses identified balancing selection in immunity genes that have implications for the hosts’ tolerance of high densities of microbes. Additionally, our results support the hypothesis that each of the seven growth forms constitutes a distinct Ircinia species that is characterized by a unique microbiome. These results illuminate the evolutionary pathways that promote stable associations between host sponges and their microbiomes, and that potentially facilitate ecological divergence among Ircinia species.

Effect of an anti-inflammatory pomegranate otic treatment on the clinical evolution and microbiota profile of dogs with otitis externa.

Canine otitis externa (OE) is a common disease characterised by inflammation of the epithelial tissue of the external ear canal. Secondary infections are frequent, and Malassezia pachydermatis and Staphylococcus pseudintermedius are routinely isolated and treated with antifungal and antibiotic compounds. To analyse the otitis ear microbiome before and after a treatment with prednisolone plus pomegranate or antimicrobial drugs ANIMALS: 15 dogs with nonpurulent OE. A 30 day, double-blinded, multicentre, randomized and controlled parallel-group (1:1) trial was conducted in 15 dogs with nonpurulent OE, following two different topical treatments (prednisolone plus pomegranate versus prednisolone plus antibiotic and antifungal drugs). On days (D)0, D15 and D30, serum and skin otic samples were collected, and clinical examination and microbiome analysis (bacteria and fungi) were performed. Results were compared with validated otitis clinical scores to assess the effectiveness of both treatments. Nine bacterial and four fungal families were detected during the three time-points tested. An increase in fungal diversity (Shannon index) and composition was the most significant change observed after both treatments. At treatment D15 and D30, the reduction in clinical signs was statistically significant in both treatment groups (P≤0.05). Prednisolone plus pomegranate cleanser treatment was able to control the clinical signs of otitis as well as the bacterial and fungal overgrowth. Mild otitis cases associated with microbial overgrowth may be managed with topical antiseptic and anti-inflammatory agents without the need for antibiotic and/or antifungal compounds.

Ocular Microbiota and Intraocular Inflammation

The term ocular microbiota refers to all types of commensal and pathogenic microorganisms present on or in the eye. The ocular surface is continuously exposed to the environment and harbors various commensals. Commensal microbes have been demonstrated to regulate host metabolism, development of immune system, and host defense against pathogen invasion. An unbalanced microbiota could lead to pathogenic microbial overgrowth and cause local or systemic inflammation. The specific antigens that irritate the deleterious immune responses in various inflammatory eye diseases remain obscure, while recent evidence implies a microbial etiology of these illnesses. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the literature on ocular microbiota and the role of commensal microbes in several eye diseases. In addition, this review will also discuss the interaction between microbial pathogens and host factors involved in intraocular inflammation, and evaluate therapeutic potential of targeting ocular microbiota to treat intraocular inflammation.

A Pilot Study Combining Ultrafiltration with Ozonation for the Treatment of Secondary Urban Wastewater: Organic Micropollutants, Microbial Load and Biological Effects

Ozonation followed by ultrafiltration (O3 + UF) was employed at pilot scale for the treatment of secondary urban wastewater, envisaging its safe reuse for crop irrigation. Chemical contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) and priority substances (PSs), microbial load, estrogenic activity, cell viability and cellular metabolic activity were measured before and immediately after O3 + UF treatment. The microbial load was also evaluated after one-week storage of the treated water to assess potential bacteria regrowth. Among the organic micropollutants detected, only citalopram and isoproturon were not removed below the limit of quantification. The treatment was also effective in the reduction in the bacterial loads considering current legislation in water quality for irrigation (i.e., in terms of enterobacteria and nematode eggs). However, after seven days of storage, total heterotrophs regrew to levels close to the initial, with the concomitant increase in the genes 16S rRNA and intI1. The assessment of biological effects revealed similar water quality before and after treatment, meaning that O3 + UF did not produce detectable toxic by-products. Thus, the findings of this study indicate that the wastewater treated with this technology comply with the water quality standards for irrigation, even when stored up to one week, although improvements must be made to minimise microbial overgrowth.