Micro-particle Image Velocimetry Measurements Research Articles

Weather-related changes in the dehydration of respiratory droplets on surfaces bolster bacterial endurance

HypothesisThe study shows for the first time a fivefold difference in the survivability of the bacterium Pseudomonas Aeruginosa (PA) in a realistic respiratory fluid droplet on fomites undergoing drying at different environmental conditions. For instance, in 2023, the annual average outdoor relative humidity (RH) and temperature in London (UK) is 71 % and 11 °C, whereas in New Delhi (India), it is 45 % and 26 °C, showing that disease spread from fomites could have a demographic dependence. Respiratory fluid droplet ejections containing pathogens on inanimate surfaces are crucial in disease spread, especially in nosocomial settings. However, the interplay between evaporation dynamics, internal fluid flow and precipitation and their collective influence on the distribution and survivability of pathogens at different environmental conditions are less known. ExperimentsShadowgraphy imaging is employed to study evaporation, and optical microscopy imaging is used for precipitation dynamics. Micro-particle image velocimetry (MicroPIV) measurements reveal the internal flow dynamics. Confocal imaging of fluorescently labelled PA elucidates the bacterial distribution within the deposits. FindingsThe study finds that the evaporation rate is drastically impeded during drying at elevated solutal concentrations, particularly at high RH and low temperature conditions. MicroPIV shows reduced internal flow under high RH and low temperature (low evaporation rate) conditions. Evaporation rate influences crystal growth, with delayed efflorescence and extending crystallization times. PA forms denser peripheral arrangements under high evaporation rates and shows a fivefold increase in survivability under low evaporation rates. These findings highlight the critical impact of environmental conditions on pathogen persistence and disease spread from inanimate surfaces.

Investigation of Multidimensional Fractionation in Microchannels Combining a Numerical DEM-LBM Approach with Optical Measurements

The fractionation in microchannels is a promising approach for the delivery of microparticles in narrow property distributions. The underlying mechanisms of the channels are however often not completely understood and are therefore subject to current research. These investigations are done using different numerical and experimental methods. In this work, we present and evaluate our method of combining a numerical Discrete Element Method (DEM)-Lattice Boltzmann Method (LBM) approach with experimental long-exposure fluorescence microscopy, micro-Particle Image Velocimetry (µPIV) and Astigmatism Particle Tracking Velocimetry (APTV) measurements. The suitability of the single approaches and their synergies are evaluated using the exemplary investigation of multidimensional fractionation in different channel geometries. It shows that both, numerical and experimental method are well suited to evaluate particle dynamics in microchannels. As they furthermore show strengths canceling out weaknesses of the respective other method, the combined method is very well suited for the comprehensive analysis of particle dynamics in microchannels.

Experimental validation of a computational fluid dynamics model using micro-particle image velocimetry of the irrigation flow in confluent canals.

This study aimed to experimentally validate a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model, using micro-particle image velocimetry (micro-PIV) measurements of the irrigation flow velocity field developed in confluent canals during irrigation with a side-vented needle. A microchip with confluent canals, manufactured in polydimethylsiloxane was used in a micro-PIV analysis of the irrigation flow using a side-vented needle placed 3 mm from the end of the confluence of the canals. Velocity fields and profiles were recorded for flow rates of 0.017 and 0.1ml/s and compared with those predicted in CFD numerical simulations (using a finite volume commercial code - FLUENT) for both laminar and turbulent regimes. The overall flow pattern, isovelocity and vector maps as well as velocity profiles showed a close agreement between the micro-PIV experimental and CFD predicted data. No relevant differences were observed between the results obtained with the laminar and turbulent flow models used. Results showed that the laminar CFD modelling is reliable to predict the flow in similar domains.

High-Throughput and Controllable Fabrication of Helical Microfibers by Hydrodynamically Focusing Flow.

Due to the unique spiral geometry, different functional helical fibers are fabricated to perform vital tasks, including cargo transportation, medical treatment, cell manipulation, and so on. Although microfluidic techniques are widely used to fabricate helical fibers, the problems of channel blockage and spinning instability have not been well solved, which limits the mass preparation and practical application of spiral microfibers. In addition, the spinning mechanism is simply limited to liquid rope coiling, which has little impact on the design of microfluidic devices. Here, new types of microfluidic devices, which were easy to make and exhibited excellent spiral spinning performance, were designed. It was found that adding a sleeve layer outside the inner core needle in a coaxial microfluidic device could effectively promote the stable formation of helical microfibers. This novel microchannel could fabricate helical microfibers of more than 100 m in length continuously at one time with almost no blockage or deformation, and the key parameters of the fibers could be precisely adjusted. Combined with micro-particle image velocimetry (micro-PIV) measurements, it was confirmed that the improvement in the spinning performances was mainly attributed to the emergence of a focusing flow in the presence of the sleeve layer. After loading magnetic nanoparticles, the helical microfibers exhibited excellent motion manipulation capabilities, which showed great potential for drug delivery, cargo transportation, clogging removal, etc. This new design not only realized the high-throughput fabrication of helical microfibers but also provided deeper insights into the underlying mechanisms of spiral generation and new ideas for the design of microfluidic devices.

Velocity measurement of magnetic particles simultaneously affected by two-phase flow and an external magnetic field using dual-sided SPIM-µPIV

Micro-particle image velocimetry (µPIV) measurement in gas–liquid flow is a challenging task mainly due to the volume illumination of the laser light. A special solution frequently adopted is the use of a thin laser sheet with a reduced macro-scale 2D-PIV illumination method. In this study, a novel dual-sided single-plane illumination microscopy-micro particle image velocimetry (SPIM-µPIV) technique was developed and successfully applied to multi-phase flow. The velocity of magnetic particles in a power-generation unit using waste heat simultaneously affected by two-phase flow and an external magnetic field was measured. This technique illuminates a light source in a thin sheet form, thus reducing errors due to particle overlap. Both sides of the laser sheet were illuminated to prevent particle shadowing and amplify the fluorescence signal. The velocity distributions of the wall and center were measured simultaneously. The average magnetic particle diameter was 200 nm; the excitation and emission wavelengths were 530 and 650 nm, respectively. The central magnetic force of the external magnetic field was 0.23 T. The velocity of the magnetic particles was measured under bubbly and slug flows, where magnetic particles are disturbed and power can be generated. For the bubbly flow, the velocity and vorticity were reduced by 11.89% and 32.29%, respectively, and by 34.70% and 8%, respectively, for the slug flow. The bubbly and slug flows showed opposite results in terms of velocity and vorticity reduction.

Micro-particle Image Velocimetry Measurements of Pore-Scale Velocity Field during Nanoparticle-Assisted Alkaline Flooding

Micro-particle Image Velocimetry Measurements of Pore-Scale Velocity Field during Nanoparticle-Assisted Alkaline Flooding

Experimental fluid dynamics characterization of a novel micropump-mixer.

The application of lab-on-a-chip systems to biomedical engineering and medical biology is rapidly growing. Reciprocating micropumps show significant promise as automated bio-fluid handling systems and as active reagent-to-sample mixers. Here, we describe a thorough fluid dynamic analysis of an active micro-pump-mixer designed for applications of preclinical blood analysis and clinical diagnostics in hematology. Using high-speed flow visualization and micro-particle image velocimetry measurements, a parametric study is performed to investigate the fluid dynamics of six discrete modes of micropump operation. With this approach, we identify an actuation regime that results in optimal sample flow rates while concomitantly maximizing reagent-to-sample mixing.

Instabilities in micro-contraction flows of semi-dilute CTAB and CPyCl solutions: rheology and flow instabilities

The flows of two semi-dilute surfactant solutions (CTAB and CPyCl) through several micro contractions/expansions are experimentally investigated, following an extensive rheological characterization in both shear and extensional flows. The shear rheology of the solutions shows strong shear thinning and shear banding, whereas Small Amplitude Oscillatory Shear and Capillary Break-up Extensional Rheometry indicate that they have high shear and extensional elasticities. Flow visualizations and micro-particle image velocimetry measurements show that the surfactant solutions exhibit three established types of flow patterns in contraction flows: Newtonian-like, asymmetric and disordered. Newtonian-like flow occurs at low flow rates and is preceded by a long transient flow in experiments starting from rest, which seems to be related to shear banding and the alignment of wormlike micelles. The asymmetric flow regime occurs at moderate flow rates and is characterized by an asymmetric upstream central jet with two adjacent vortices, features that change non-periodically, but slowly, in time. This flow pattern seems to be related with the high elasticity of the semi-dilute solutions. The disordered flow pattern is similar to the asymmetric flow in terms of broad characteristics, but the flow asymmetry changes with time much faster than in the asymmetric flow regime, resembling a chaotic-like flow. The disordered flow seems to be related with the breakdown of micellar structures. We concluded also that the flows in both the asymmetric and disordered flow regimes are globally stable in terms of flow patterns, but locally unstable in terms of flow characteristics, with power spectra of the velocity fluctuations having slopes that differ from those typically encountered in elastic turbulence.

Design of a collector shape for uniform flow distribution in microchannels

The focus of this study is the design of a collector with the objective of achieving uniform flow in multiple parallel microchannels. This objective is achieved by understanding the limitations of current designs and a novel design is proposed, which is further carefully optimized. The existing collector shape considered is U-type, which is investigated numerically. The creation of a stagnation zone, growth of a boundary layer along the collector wall and low/high velocity zones in the collector are identified as the prime causes of flow maldistribution. A novel design, a dumbbell shape collector, is proposed to overcome the limitations of the earlier designs. The dumbbell shape is evaluated quantitatively and is found to perform better than all existing shapes. This dumbbell shape collector provides a uniform flow distribution with less than 0.4% relative difference from the average flow rate in different channels, which is substantially better than existing collectors with 2.3% relative difference from the average flow rate for Rech = 32. The uniformity is further confirmed using micro-particle image velocimetry measurements. The dumbbell shape collector is generalized and optimized to cater to heat sinks of different dimensions and to broaden its applicability in both micro and macro dimensions.

In-situ shear-banding quantification of surfactant solutions in straight microfluidic channels

Surfactant molecules aggregate into various micellar morphologies, depending on temperature, concentration, formulation, and flow. Micellar solutions are known to undergo shear-banding when subjected to strong shear rates, as the fluid spontaneously divides itself into bands of high and low-shear rate, both under the same applied shear stress. This phenomenon occurs because of the complex structure of micellar solutions, which undergo phase transitions upon applied flow, changing the viscosity accordingly. Here, we study shear-banding of micellar solutions in one of the simplest microfluidic geometries, a straight planar channel with rectangular cross section. Four solutions with similar zero-shear viscosity and nonlinear rheological response, but different structures are compared to investigate the flow-structure relation and its impact on shear-banding. Micellar solutions are prepared by adding different amounts of the same organic salt, sodium salicylate, to surfactant molecules with different headgroups, i.e., cetyltrimethylammonium bromide and cetylpyridinium chloride. From spatially resolved microparticle image velocimetry and flow-induced birefringence measurements, the shear rate and shear stress profiles developed on the xy-plane of a planar microchannel are obtained from a series of volumetric flow rates. Based on these profiles, in-situ rheological parameters, such as the local viscosity, are calculated by applying the stress-optical rule. The local response in a microfluidic channel is compared to the bulk rheological response in a rotational rheometer and clear correlations are found especially for the stress plateau region, the fingerprint of shear-banding. Based on the local rheological characterization of these micellar solutions, the development and growth of shear-bands is observed and quantified. The role of salt concentration and surfactant headgroup on the resulting micellar morphology is discussed, as well as its impact on the development of shear-banding.

Electrokinetic Phenomena in Pencil Lead-Based Microfluidics.

Fabrication of microchannels and associated electrodes to generate electrokinetic phenomena often involves costly materials and considerable effort. In this study, we used graphite pencil-leads as low cost, disposable 3D electrodes to investigate various electrokinetic phenomena in straight cylindrical microchannels, which were themselves fabricated by using a graphite rod as the microchannel mold. Individual pencil-leads were employed as the micro-electrodes arranged along the side walls of the microchannel. Efficient electrokinetic phenomena provided by the 3D electrodes, including alternating current electroosmosis (ACEO), induced-charge electroosmosis (ICEO), and dielectrophoresis (DEP), were demonstrated by the introduced pencil-lead based microfluidic devices. The electrokinetic phenomena were characterized by micro-particle image velocimetry (micro-PIV) measurements and microscopy imaging. Highly efficient electrokinetic phenomena using 3D pencil-lead electrodes showed the affordability and ease of this technique to fabricate microfluidic devices embedded with electrodes for electrokinetic fluid and particle manipulations.

An Experimental Investigation of the Permeability in Porous Chip Formed by Micropost Arrays Based on Microparticle Image Velocimetry and Micromanometer Measurements

Measurements of velocity and pressure differences for flows in porous chip fabricated with micropost arrays arranged in square pattern were implemented by using micro-particle image velocimetry (micro-PIV) and high precision micromanometer. Based on the measurement results, the permeability was solved by Brinkman equation under the averaged velocities over the cross section, two-dimensional velocities on the center plane of the microchannels, and the averaged velocities on the center plane considering the effect of depth of correlation (DOC), respectively. The experimental results indicate that the nondimensional permeability based on different velocities satisfies the Kozeny–Carman (KC) equation. The Kozeny factor is taken as 40 for the averaged velocity over the cross section and 15 for two kinds of center velocities based on the micropost array of this study, respectively. The permeability calculated by the velocities on the center plane is greater than that by the averaged velocity over the cross section.

Viscoelastic flow in an obstructed microchannel at high Weissenberg number

Detailed measurements of the flow instability of dilute shear-thinning viscoelastic aqueous solutions, with relatively low zero-shear viscosities, in an obstructed microchannel flow are reported. We examine the flow behaviour resulting from a 100 μm post placed in the channel centreline over a range of Reynolds numbers ( $$5<Re<300$$ ) and Weissenberg numbers ( $$20<Wi<10^3$$ ). Micro-particle image velocimetry measurements show the onset of an upstream instability within a Reynolds number range and at a critical elasticity number corresponding to polymer concentrations above 25 ppm of long-chain polyacrylamide. The instability results in significant local fluctuations in the flow field approaching 30 % of the mean velocity. The magnitude of the local viscosity ratio in the region upstream of the post is proposed as a driving mechanism for the instability which resembles a buckling flow. Additionally, the classical instability owing to separation and vortex formation downstream of the post in Newtonian flow is suppressed and a very long stable wake is observed extending over 10 post-diameters downstream.

Design, characterization, and modeling of microcirculation systems with integrated oxygenators

Abstract. Here, we describe a microfluidic system for hypoxia assays on human cell culture models. These systems are developed to replace or reduce animal testing in biomedical basic research. The presented system uses a gas-permeable membrane as a gas–liquid interface and a micropump for media actuation to influence the oxygen content in two cell culture chambers. To apply well-defined hypoxic conditions to the cells, a good understanding of the mass transport phenomena is necessary. Therefore, a complete network model of the microfluidic system is presented. This model is validated by means of micro-particle image velocimetry (µPIV) and optical oxygen measurement with fluorescence lifetime detection. Finally, the impact of several process parameters, e.g., the gas permeability of the pump, is discussed using the developed model.

Development and Analysis of Wall Models for Internal Combustion Engine Simulations Using High-speed Micro-PIV Measurements

The performance, efficiency and emissions of internal combustion (IC) engines are affected by the thermo-viscous boundary layer region and heat transfer. Computational models for the prediction of engine performance typically rely on equilibrium wall-function models to overcome the need for resolving the viscous boundary layer structure. The wall shear stress and heat flux are obtained as boundary conditions for the outer flow calculation. However, these equilibrium wall-function models are typically derived by considering canonical flow configurations, introducing substantial modeling assumptions that are not necessarily justified for in-cylinder flows. The objective of this work is to assess the validity of several model approximations that are commonly introduced in the development of wall-function models for IC-engine applications. This examination is performed by considering crank-angle resolved high-resolution micro-particle image velocimetry (µ-PIV) measurements in a spark-ignition direct-injection single cylinder engine. Using these measurements, the performance of an algebraic equilibrium wall-function model commonly used in RANS and LES IC-engine simulations is evaluated. By identifying shortcomings of this model, a non-equilibrium differential wall model is developed and two different closures are considered for the determination of the turbulent viscosity. It is shown that both wall models provide adequate predictions if applied inside the viscous sublayer. However, the equilibrium wall-function model consistently underpredicts the shear stress if applied in the log-layer. In contrast, the non-equilibrium wall model provides improved predictions of the near-wall region and shear stress irrespective of the wall distance and the piston location. By utilizing the experimental data, significant adverse pressure gradients due to the large vortical motion inside the cylinder (induced by tumble, swirl and turbulence) are observed and included in the non-equilibrium wall model to further improve the model performance. These investigations are complemented by developing a consistent wall heat transfer model, and simulation results are compared against the equilibrium wall-function model and Woschni’s empirical correlation.

Complex flow dynamics around 3D microbot prototypes.

A new experimental setup for the study of the complex flow dynamics around 3D microbot prototypes in a straight microchannel has been developed and assessed. The ultimate aim of this work is focused on the analysis of the morphology of different microbot prototypes to get a better insight into their efficiency when they swim through the main conduits of the human circulatory system. The setup consists of a fused silica straight microchannel with a 3D microbot prototype fastened in the center of the channel cross-section by an extremely thin support. Four different prototypes were considered: a cube, a sphere and two ellipsoids with aspect ratios of 1 : 2 and 1 : 4, respectively. Flow visualization and micro-particle image velocimetry (μPIV) measurements were performed using Newtonian and viscoelastic blood analogue fluids. An efficiency parameter, ℑ, to discriminate the prototypes in terms of flow disturbance has been proposed.

Flow of DNA solutions in a microfluidic gradual contraction.

The flow of λ-DNA solutions in a gradual micro-contraction was investigated using direct measurement techniques. The effects on DNA transport in microscale flows are significant because the flow behavior is influenced by macromolecular conformations, both viscous and elastic forces dominate inertial forces at this length scale, and the fully extended length of the molecule approaches the characteristic channel length wc (L/wc ∼ 0.13). This study examines the flow of semi-dilute and entangled DNA solutions in a gradual planar micro-contraction for low Reynolds numbers (3.7 × 10(-6 )< Re < 3.1 × 10(-1)) and high Weissenberg numbers (0.4 < Wi < 446). The semi-dilute DNA solutions have modest elasticity number, El = Wi/Re = 55, and do not exhibit viscoelastic behavior. For the entangled DNA solutions, we access high elasticity numbers (7.9 × 10(3 )< El < 6.0 × 10(5)). Video microscopy and streak images of entangled DNA solution flow reveal highly elastic behavior evidenced by the presence of large, stable vortices symmetric about the centerline and upstream of the channel entrance. Micro-particle image velocimetry measurements are used to obtain high resolution, quantitative velocity measurements of the vortex growth in this micro-contraction flow. These direct measurements provide a deeper understanding of the underlying physics of macromolecular transport in microfluidic flow, which will enable the realization of enhanced designs of lab-on-a-chip systems.

Biomimetics of fetal alveolar flow phenomena using microfluidics.

At the onset of life in utero, the respiratory system begins as a liquid-filled tubular organ and undergoes significant morphological changes during fetal development towards establishing a respiratory organ optimized for gas exchange. As airspace morphology evolves, respiratory alveolar flows have been hypothesized to exhibit evolving flow patterns. In the present study, we have investigated flow topologies during increasing phases of embryonic life within an anatomically inspired microfluidic device, reproducing real-scale features of fetal airways representative of three distinct phases of in utero gestation. Micro-particle image velocimetry measurements, supported by computational fluid dynamics simulations, reveal distinct respiratory alveolar flow patterns throughout different stages of fetal life. While attached, streamlined flows characterize the shallow structures of premature alveoli indicative of the onset of saccular stage, separated recirculating vortex flows become the signature of developed and extruded alveoli characteristic of the advanced stages of fetal development. To further mimic physiological aspects of the cellular environment of developing airways, our biomimetic devices integrate an alveolar epithelium using the A549 cell line, recreating a confluent monolayer that produces pulmonary surfactant. Overall, our in vitro biomimetic fetal airways model delivers a robust and reliable platform combining key features of alveolar morphology, flow patterns, and physiological aspects of fetal lungs developing in utero.

Inducing 3D vortical flow patterns with 2D asymmetric actuation of artificial cilia for high-performance active micromixing

Driven by the advancement of the “lab-chip” concept, a new beating behavior of artificial cilia was identified to meet the demands on rapid and complete fluid mixing in miniaturized devices. This beating behavior is characterized by an in-plane asymmetric motion along a modified figure-of-eight trajectory. A typically symmetric figure-of-eight motion was also tested for comparison. Results showed that with this new beating behavior, the mixing efficiency for complete mixing is 1.34 times faster than that with the typical figure-of-eight motion. More importantly, the required beating area was only approximately two-thirds of that in the typical figure-of-eight motion, which is beneficial for more compact designs of various “lab-chip” applications. The unique planar asymmetric motion of the artificial cilia, which enhanced the magnitudes of the induced three-dimensional (3D) flow, was identified by micro-particle image velocimetry (µPIV) measurement and numerical modeling as a major contributor in enhancing microscale mixing efficiency. Quantitatively, 3D vortical flow structures induced by the artificial cilia were presented to elucidate the underlying interaction between the artificial cilia and the surrounding flow fields. With the presented quantification methods and mixing performance results, a new insight is provided by the hydrodynamic advantage of the presented micromixing concept on efficiently mixing highly viscous flow streams at microscale, to leverage the attributes of artificial cilia in the aspect of microscale flow manipulation.

Flow bioreactor design for quantitative measurements over endothelial cells using micro-particle image velocimetry

Mechanotransduction in endothelial cells (ECs) is a highly complex process through which cells respond to changes in hemodynamic loading by generating biochemical signals involving gene and protein expression. To study the effects of mechanical loading on ECs in a controlled fashion, different in vitro devices have been designed to simulate or replicate various aspects of these physiological phenomena. This paper describes the design, use, and validation of a flow chamber which allows for spatially and temporally resolved micro-particle image velocimetry measurements of endothelial surface topography and stresses over living ECs immersed in pulsatile flow. This flow chamber also allows the study of co-cultures (i.e., ECs and smooth muscle cells) and the effect of different substrates (i.e., coverslip and∕or polyethylene terepthalate (PET) membrane) on cellular response. In this report, the results of steady and pulsatile flow on fixed endothelial cells seeded on PET membrane and coverslip, respectively, are presented. Surface topography of ECs is computed from multiple two-dimensional flow measurements. The distributions of shear stress and wall pressure on each individual cell are also determined and the importance of both types of stress in cell remodeling is highlighted.