Metric Tons Of CO2 Research Articles

International trade related food miles – The case of Canada

At the beginning of the 21st century imports of agricultural and food commodities have become a major part of many nations’ food baskets. Indeed the global food system has several merits for nations, businesses and individual consumers’ well-being. However, as increasing evidence suggests that we are approaching an era of climate change and scarcity of cheap energy sources the sustainability of that system must be examined. One part of any food commodity chain is its ‘food miles’ – the distance the commodity travels from point of production to point of consumption, the required energy and resulting emissions. This paper presents a 1 year ‘snapshot’ of Canada’s total import related food miles. It presents an analysis of the distance imported foods traveled from around the world to major points of consumption in Canada and documents the equivalent carbon dioxide emissions related to those imports. It presents both a macro scale picture of the equivalent emissions related to transportation of imported food and a micro scale picture which focuses on specific commodities consumed in various parts of the country. It then discusses policy implications for food sustainability. Overall the research highlights that about 30% of the agricultural and food commodities consumed in Canada are imported, resulting in ‘food miles’ of over 61billiontonneskm, leading to annual emissions of 3.3 million metric tonnes of CO2. Of the various agriculture and food commodities studied, fruits and vegetables had the highest food miles related emissions.

Potential energy savings from cool roofs in Spain and Andalusia

Cool roofs are an inexpensive method to save energy and to improve the comfort level in buildings in mild and hot climates. A high scale implementation of cool roofs in Andalusia, in the south of Spain, could potentially save 295,000 kWh per year, considering only residential buildings with flat roofs using electrical heating. At the current energy prices, consumers can save 59 million euros annually in electricity costs and the emission of 136,000 metric tons of CO2 can be directly avoided every year from the production of that electricity. If radiative forcings are considered, Andalucía can potentially offset between 9.44 and 12 Mt of CO2. All the provinces in the rest of Spain are also studied in this paper. The biggest savings are achieved in Gran Canaria (48%), Tenerife (48%), Cádiz (36%), Murcia (33%), Huelva (30%), Málaga (29%), Almería (29%) and Sevilla (28%), where savings are greater than 2 euros per square meter of flat roof for old buildings with dark roofs. For the biggest cities the range of savings obtained are: between 7.4% and 11% in Madrid, between 12% and 18% in Barcelona and between 14% and 20% in Valencia.

Sustainable Science? Reducing the Carbon Impact of Scientific Mega-Meetings

Scientists across the globe recognize the importance of reducing carbon emissions to combat climate change. At the same time, we have increased our carbon footprint through air travel to the growing number of scientific society “mega-meetings” that host thousands of attendees. Although alternative solutions have been proposed to reduce the environmental impact of annual conferences, these have yet to be evaluated against the business-as-usual scenario. Here, we use 9 years of annual meeting attendance data from the Ecological Society of America and the Association of American Geographers to assess the efficacy of two additional solutions: 1) alternate large national meetings that require significant air travel with smaller regional meetings that do not; and 2) incorporate geography into the meeting location selection process. The carbon footprint of annual mega-meetings ranged 3-fold, from 1196-4062 metric tons of CO2. Results indicate that an alternating schedule of national and regional meetings can reduce conference-related CO2 emissions up to 73%, while improved spatial planning may result in further reductions. We discuss the benefits and tradeoffs of proposals to green scientific meetings, with a view to spark further debate on how to increase the sustainability of scientific conferences.

Sustainable Science? Reducing the Carbon Impact of Scientific Mega-Meetings

Scientists across the globe recognize the importance of reducing carbon emissions to combat climate change. At the same time, we have increased our carbon footprint through air travel to the growing number of scientific society “mega-meetings” that host thousands of attendees. Although alternative solutions have been proposed to reduce the environmental impact of annual conferences, these have yet to be evaluated against the business-as-usual scenario. Here, we use 9 years of annual meeting attendance data from the Ecological Society of America and the Association of American Geographers to assess the efficacy of two additional solutions: 1) alternate large national meetings that require significant air travel with smaller regional meetings that do not; and 2) incorporate geography into the meeting location selection process. The carbon footprint of annual mega-meetings ranged 3-fold, from 1196-4062 metric tons of CO2. Results indicate that an alternating schedule of national and regional meetings can reduce conference-related CO2 emissions up to 73%, while improved spatial planning may result in further reductions. We discuss the benefits and tradeoffs of proposals to green scientific meetings, with a view to spark further debate on how to increase the sustainability of scientific conferences.

Carbon Financial Instruments, thin trading, and volatility: Evidence from the Chicago Climate Exchange

Abstract We provide the first econometric investigation of volatility dynamics for the Carbon Financial Instrument (CFI) traded on the Chicago Climate Exchange (CCX). A CFI is a financial contract with the right to emit 100 metric tons of CO 2 equivalent. In this study, we present evidence of infrequent trading in the CCX, consistent with emerging markets that are inhabited by non-competitive agents trading permits. We explore the relationship between the observed thin trading effects and GARCH model testing and estimation, concluding with some implications for volatility-based Value-at-Risk forecasts. Our results are important for traders of Carbon Financial Instruments and for policy makers seeking to improve the design of the Chicago Climate Exchange.

Quantitative analysis of factors affecting greenhouse gas emissions at institutions of higher education

Abstract Increasingly, institutions are reporting greenhouse gas emissions as a means to measure sustainability. One way higher education is taking a leadership role is through the American College and University Presidents Climate Commitment (ACUPCC), which requires signatory institutions to account for their emissions and develop a climate action plan with emissions reduction goals. Recent data for 135 colleges and universities reporting greenhouse gas emissions was characterized and analyzed. Greenhouse gas emissions from these institutions were found to be a function of the size of the institution (as measured by full-time student enrollment and building area), the amount of laboratory and residential space, whether there is a medical school, and the extent of commuting to campus by faculty, staff and students. Scope 1 and 2 emissions are primarily influenced by the physical size of the institution and secondarily by climate. When looking at gross (total scope 1, 2 and 3) emissions, laboratory space was found to have 10 times more effect on emissions per square meter than space such as classroom and office, while residential space had a two-fold effect. These results change somewhat when looking at smaller schools that have gross emissions of 50,000 metric tons of CO 2 -equivalent or less. These results have implications for institutions of higher education at the policy level in that those institutions that are more laboratory intense and face greater challenges in reducing their GHG footprint. Residential colleges and universities also experience a disproportionate impact on their emissions, probably as a result of the 24 h, 7-day a week demands of such campuses.

China and the United Nations: The Stakeholder Spectrum

In December 2009, representatives of 192 nations—not to mention thousands of journalists, activists, and business executives—assembled in Copenhagen for the 15th Conference of the Parties to the Un...

Subsidizing Household Capital: How Does Energy Efficiency Policy Compare to a Carbon Tax?

This study uses a general equilibrium model to compare environmental and economic outcomes of two policies: (1) a tax credit of 10 percent of the price of household capital that is 20 percent more energy efficient than its unsubsidized counterpart, assuming half of new household investment qualifies for the credit; and (2) a tax starting at $30 ($2007) per metric ton of CO2 rising five percent annually. By 2040, the carbon tax and tax credit reduce emissions by about 60 1.5 percent, respectively. Assuming other countries impose no carbon price, we find that although the carbon tax reduces U.S. GDP, it improves U.S. household welfare because it reduces world fuel prices, strengthens U.S. terms of trade, and makes imports cheaper. The revenue neutral tax credit reduces welfare but boosts U.S. GDP growth slightly at first. Both policies have similar impacts on the federal budget, but of opposite signs. doi: 10.5547/ISSN0195-6574-EJ-Vol32-SI1-7

Life cycle greenhouse gas assessment of infrastructure construction for California’s high-speed rail system

This study estimates of the life cycle greenhouse gas inventory for construction of high-speed rail infrastructure from San Francisco to Anaheim indicates it will result in 2.4 million metric tons of CO 2 with material production comprising 80% of emissions and transportation of construction materials, 16%. While tunneling and aerial structures account for only 15% of the route’s length, they are responsible for 60% of emissions. Based on estimates of avoided emissions from operation of the system of just over one million metric tons of CO 2 per year, construction emissions would be recuperated in about two years and their global warming effect in about six after services begin. This range of recuperation times is relatively short given the long-life of the constructed infrastructure. Avoided emissions estimates are dependent on ridership and if low ridership lead to a 75% decrease in offset emissions, recuperation times may increase to more than 20 years.

Virtual rewards for driving green

Virtual rewards for driving green

Industrial test and techno-economic analysis of CO 2 capture in Huaneng Beijing coal-fired power station

The first industrial-scale CO 2 capture plant in China has been demonstrated at Huaneng Beijing power plant has shown that this technology is a good option for the capture of CO 2 produced by commercial coal-fired power plants. The commissioning and industrial tests are introduced in this paper. The tests show that in the early stages of the passivation phase, the concentration variations of amine, anti-oxidant and Fe 3+ are in the normal range, and the main parameters achieve the design value. The efficiency of the CO 2 capture was about 80–85%, and by the end of January 2009 about 900 tons of CO 2 (99.7%) have been captured. The equipment investment and consumptive costs, including steam, power, solution and others, have been analyzed. The results show: the cost of the absorber and the stripper account for about 50% of main equipment; the consumptive cost is about 25.3 US$ per metric tons of CO 2, of which the steam requirement accounts for about 55%; the COE increased by 0.02 US$/kW h and the electricity purchase price increased by 29%.

Assessment of basin-scale hydrologic impacts of CO 2 sequestration, Illinois basin

Idealized, basin-scale sharp-interface models of CO 2 injection were constructed for the Illinois basin. Porosity and permeability were decreased with depth within the Mount Simon Formation. Eau Claire confining unit porosity and permeability were kept fixed. We used 726 injection wells located near 42 power plants to deliver 80 million metric tons of CO 2/year. After 100 years of continuous injection, deviatoric fluid pressures varied between 5.6 and 18 MPa across central and southern part of the Illinois basin. Maximum deviatoric pressure reached about 50% of lithostatic levels to the south. The pressure disturbance (>0.03 MPa) propagated 10–25 km away from the injection wells resulting in significant well–well pressure interference. These findings are consistent with single-phase analytical solutions of injection. The radial footprint of the CO 2 plume at each well was only 0.5–2 km after 100 years of injection. Net lateral brine displacement was insignificant due to increasing radial distance from injection well and leakage across the Eau Claire confining unit. On geologic time scales CO 2 would migrate northward at a rate of about 6 m/1000 years. Because of paleo-seismic events in this region (M5.5–M7.5), care should be taken to avoid high pore pressures in the southern Illinois basin.

Effects of reduction in porosity and permeability with depth on storage capacity and injectivity in deep saline aquifers: A case study from the Mount Simon Sandstone aquifer

The Upper Cambrian Mount Simon Sandstone is recognized as a deep saline reservoir that has significant potential for geological sequestration in the Midwestern region of the United States. Porosity and permeability values collected from core analyses in rocks from this formation and its lateral equivalents in Indiana, Kentucky, Michigan, and Ohio indicate a predictable relationship with depth owing to a reduction in the pore structure due to the effects of compaction and/or cementation, primarily as quartz overgrowths. The regional trend of decreasing porosity with depth is described by the equation: ϕ( d) = 16.36 × e −0.00039* d , where ϕ is the porosity and d is the depth in m. The decrease of porosity with depth generally holds true on a basinwide scale. Bearing in mind local variations in lithologic and petrophysical character within the Mount Simon Sandstone, the source data that were used to predict porosity were utilized to estimate the pore volume available within the reservoir that could potentially serve as storage space for injected CO 2. The potential storage capacity estimated for the Mount Simon Sandstone in the study area, using efficiency factors of 1%, 5%, 10%, and 15%, is 23,680, 118,418, 236,832, and 355,242 million metric tons of CO 2, respectively.

Evaluation of trapping mechanisms in geologic CO2 sequestration: Case study of SACROC northern platform, a 35-year CO2 injection site

CO₂ trapping mechanisms in geologic sequestration are the specific processes that hold CO₂ underground in porous formations after it is injected. The main trapping mechanisms of interest include (1) fundamental confinement of mobile CO₂ phase under low-permeability caprocks, or stratigraphic trapping, (2) conversion of CO₂ to mineral precipitates, or mineral trapping, (3) dissolution in <i>in situ</i> fluid, or solubility trapping, and (4) trapping by surface tension (capillary force) and, correspondingly, remaining in porous media as an immobile CO₂ phase, or residual CO₂ trapping. The purpose of this work is to evaluate and quantify the competing roles of these different trapping mechanisms, including the relative amounts of storage by each. For the sake of providing a realistic appraisal, we conducted our analyses on a case study site, the SACROC Unit in the Permian basin of western Texas. CO₂ has been injected in the subsurface at the SACROC Unit for more than 35 years for the purpose of enhanced oil recovery. Our analysis of the SACROC production and injection history data suggests that about 93 million metric tons of CO₂ were injected and about 38 million metric tons were produced from 1972 to 2005. As a result, a simple mass-balance suggests that the SACROC Unit has accumulated approximately 55 million metric tons of CO₂. Our study specifically focuses on the northern platform area of the SACROC Unit where about 7 million metric tons of CO₂ is stored. In the model describing the SACROC northern platform, porosity distributions were defined from extensive analyses of both 3-D seismic surveys and calibrated well logging data from 368 locations. Permeability distributions were estimated from determined porosity fields using a rock-fabric classification approach. The developed 3-D geocellular model representing the SACROC northern platform consists of over 9.4 million elements that characterize detailed 3-D heterogeneous reservoir geology. To facilitate simulation using conventional personal computers, we upscaled the 9.4 million elements model using a “renormalization” technique to reduce it to 15,470 elements. Analysis of groundwater chemistry from both the oil production formations (Cisco and Canyon Groups) and the formation above the sealing caprock suggests that the Wolfcamp Shale Formation performs well as a caprock at the SACROC Unit. However, results of geochemical mixing models also suggest that a small amount of shallow groundwater may be contaminated by reservoir brine possibly due to: (1) downward recharge of recycled reservoir brine from brine pits at the surface, or (2) upward leakage of CO₂-saturated reservoir brine through the Wolfcamp Shale Formation. Using the upscaled 3-D geocellular model with detailed fluid injection/production history data and a vast amount of field data, we developed two separate models to evaluate competing CO₂ trapping mechanisms at the SACROC northern platform. The first model simulated CO₂ trapping mechanisms in a reservoir saturated with brine only. The second model simulated CO₂ trapping mechanisms in a reservoir saturated with both brine and oil. CO₂ trapping mechanisms in the brine-only model show distinctive stages accompanying injection and post-injection periods. In the 30-year injection period from 1972 to 2002, the amount of mobile CO₂ increased to 5.0 million metric tons without increasing immobile CO_2, and the mass of solubility-trapped CO₂ sharply rose to 1.7 million metric tons. After CO₂ injection ceased, the amount of mobile CO₂ dramatically decreased and the amount of immobile CO₂ increased. Relatively small amounts of mineral precipitation (less than 0.2 million metric tons of CO₂ equivalent) occurred after 200 years. In the brine-plus-oil model, dissolution of CO₂ in oil (oil-solubility trapping) and mobile CO₂ dominated during the entire simulation period. While supercritical-phase CO₂ is mobile near the injection wells due to the high CO₂ saturation, it behaves like residually trapped CO₂ because of the small density contrast between oil and CO₂. In summary, the brine-only model reflected dominance by residual CO₂ trapping over the long term, while CO₂ in the brine-plus-oil model was dominated by oil-solubility trapping.

Implications of Compensating Property Owners for Geologic Sequestration of CO2

Geologic sequestration (GS) of carbon dioxide (CO2) is contingent upon securing the legal right to use deep subsurface pore space. Under the assumption that compensation might be required to use pore space for GS, we examine the cost of acquiring the rights to sequester 160-million metric tons of CO2 (the 30-year emissions output for an 800 megawatt power plant operating with a 60% capacity factor and at 90% capture efficiency) using a probabilistic model to simulate the temporal-spatial distribution of subsurface CO2 plumes in several brine-filled sandstones in Pennsylvania and Ohio. For comparison, the Frio Sandstone in the Texas Gulf Coast and the Mt. Simon Sandstone in Illinois were also analyzed. The predicted median values of CO2 plume footprints range from 4500 km(2) to 11,000 km(2) for the Ohio and Pennsylvania sandstones compared to 320 km(2) and 300 km(2) for the thicker Frio and Mt. Simon Sandstones, respectively. We use these footprints to bound the cost to use pore space in Pennsylvania and Ohio and, alternatively, the cost of piping CO2 from Pennsylvania and Ohio to the Mt. Simon or Frio Sandstones for sequestration. The results suggest that pore space acquisition costs could be significant and that using thin local formations for sequestration may be more expensive than piping CO2 to thicker formations at distant sites.

Evaluating Economic Reasons for China's Stance on Ship-Based Greenhouse Gas Reduction Negotiations

Greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping are an increasing concern of those interested in mitigating global climate change. Countries have not reached a consensus on ship-based greenhouse gas reduction strategies and on the responsibilities each country should take. In this paper, the economic reasons for China's insistence that the regulatory regime of the International Maritime Organization specifically address the Kyoto axiom of “common but differentiated responsibility” is evaluated, and fundamental equations relating power, speed, energy consumption, and cost to evaluate the impact of emission reduction on a selected set of routes and vessel data are applied. The policy options that are under discussion regarding ship-based carbon dioxide (CO2) reduction and China's viewpoint are reviewed, and economic justifications for China's stance are discussed. Estimates indicate that ships flying the Chinese flag accounted for 3.4% of the approximately 35 million metric tons of CO2 emitted by container ships calling at U.S. ports in 2005, and ships carrying Chinese exports accounted for 17%. Further estimates suggest that China will pay approximately $238 to $298 million more for container ship services and international trade with the United States if all vessels are required to reduce ship-based CO2 emissions. The direct cost is equivalent to about 0.20% of the total value of goods carried by container ships to the United States from China, or an $11 increase per ton of cargo. For some low-value goods, this is about an 8% increase in terms of price per ton, decreasing the already thin profit margins of Chinese exporters. These results, discussed in the context of policy-based actions, may limit or affect the choice of policy instruments.

Amine Scrubbing for CO 2 Capture

Amine scrubbing has been used to separate carbon dioxide (CO2) from natural gas and hydrogen since 1930. It is a robust technology and is ready to be tested and used on a larger scale for CO2 capture from coal-fired power plants. The minimum work requirement to separate CO2 from coal-fired flue gas and compress CO2 to 150 bar is 0.11 megawatt-hours per metric ton of CO2. Process and solvent improvements should reduce the energy consumption to 0.2 megawatt-hour per ton of CO2. Other advanced technologies will not provide energy-efficient or timely solutions to CO2 emission from conventional coal-fired power plants.

Carbon emissions and management scenarios for consumer-owned utilities

Abstract An important subset of the utility sector has been scarcely explored for its ability to reduce carbon dioxide emissions: consumer-owned electric utilities significantly contribute to U.S. greenhouse gas emissions, but are often excluded from energy efficiency and renewable energy policies. They sell a quarter of the nation's electricity, yet the carbon impact of these sales is not well understood, due to their small size, unique ownership models, and high percentage of purchased power for distribution. This paper situates consumer-owned utilities in the context of emerging U.S. climate policy, quantifying for the first time the state-by-state carbon impact of electricity sales by consumer-owned utilities. We estimate that total retail sales by consumer-owned utilities account for roughly 568 million metric tons of CO 2 annually, making this sector the 7th largest CO 2 emitter globally, and examine state-level carbon intensities of the sector in light of the current policy environment and the share of COU distribution in the states. Based on efficiency and fuel mix pathways under conceivable regulations, carbon scenarios for 2030 are developed.

Comparative Environmental and Economic Analysis of Conventional and Nanofluid Solar Hot Water Technologies

This study compares environmental and economic impacts of using nanofluids to enhance solar collector efficiency as compared to conventional solar collectors for domestic hotwater systems. Results show that for the current cost of nanoparticles the nanofluid based solar collector has a slightly longer payback period but at the end of its useful life has the same economic savings as a conventional solar collector. The nanofluid based collector has a lower embodied energy (approximately 9%) and approximately 3% higher levels of pollution offsets than a conventional collector. In addition if 50% penetration of residential nanofluid based solar collector systems for hot water heating could be achieved in Phoenix, Arizona over 1 million metric tons of CO2 would be offset per year.

Investigation of CO2 Plume Behavior for a Large-Scale Pilot Test of Geologic Carbon Storage in a Saline Formation

The hydrodynamic behavior of carbon dioxide (CO2) injected into a deep saline formation is investigated, focusing on trapping mechanisms that lead to CO2 plume stabilization. A numerical model of the subsurface at a proposed power plant with CO2 capture is developed to simulate a planned pilot test, in which 1,000,000 metric tons of CO2 is injected over a 4-year period, and the subsequent evolution of the CO2 plume for hundreds of years. Key measures are plume migration distance and the time evolution of the partitioning of CO2 between dissolved, immobile free-phase, and mobile free-phase forms. Model results indicate that the injected CO2 plume is effectively immobilized at 25 years. At that time, 38% of the CO2 is in dissolved form, 59% is immobile free phase, and 3% is mobile free phase. The plume footprint is roughly elliptical, and extends much farther up-dip of the injection well than down-dip. The pressure increase extends far beyond the plume footprint, but the pressure response decreases rapidly with distance from the injection well, and decays rapidly in time once injection ceases. Sensitivity studies that were carried out to investigate the effect of poorly constrained model parameters permeability, permeability anisotropy, and residual CO2 saturation indicate that small changes in properties can have a large impact on plume evolution, causing significant trade-offs between different trapping mechanisms.