Numerical Taxonomic Methods Research Articles

Variability in the quality of pollen grains in oat amphiploids and their parental species

The pollen analysis has become an important technique to evaluate the use of selectively breeding crops, including the three most important grasses to human nutrition. This study aimed to evaluate the reproductive potential of oat species and their hybrid progeny (amphiploids) during three consecutive vegetation seasons. Correlation and regression analyses were used to describe the morphotypes and viability of pollen grains, while numerical taxonomy methods were applied to analyse the relationships between taxa. The results indicated a difference in the size of pollen grains between the growing seasons, but a stable association between the taxa. The viability of pollen grains showed no correlation with pollen length. In the ordination space, amphiploids and parental species were well discriminated. Amphiploids and parental species were characterised by a positive correlation between the pollen size and the level of ploidy; however, along the respective regression line, the amphiploids were located among species with a high level of ploidy. Developmental anomalies of pollen grains were more frequent in amphiploids, with few pollen grains being chromosomally imbalanced, and the formation of micrograins was the most common event. Multiporate pollens being of multiple-spindle mother cells origin can be equivalents of four monoporate microspores. A strong correlation was observed between the frequencies of multiporate grains and micropollens. In the ordination space, monoporate types (species) were discriminated from multiporate types (amphiploids). High viability of pollen in amphiploids proved their genomic/chromosomal stabilisation across many generations of reproduction.

A Phenetic Approach to Selected Variants of Arabic and Aramaic Scripts

This paper aims to introduce the phenetic method for processing paleographical datasets and evaluating their similarity relationships. The presented numerical taxonomic method was applied for selected varieties of the Arabic and Aramaic scripts. The phenetic model was evaluated by hierarchical clustering and—after applying multidimensional scaling—a centroid-based clustering method. The hierarchical clustering results were presented as dendrograms (phenograms), while the centroid-based results were given in 2- and 3-dimensional Cartesian coordinate systems. The obtained results demonstrate that the numerical taxonomy's phenetic approach is useful in describing the distances between different writing systems. The long-term goal of the research is to apply machine learning tools to clarify the relationships between the large number of Aramaic and Arabic script variants. This study belongs to the field of pattern evolution, in which machine learning methods of biological evolution are used to model evolving patterns (such as writing systems) over time.

Evaluation of the innovation activities of companies in the competitive EU market – external factors

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to assess the innovation activities of companies in the EU countries, taking into consideration the external factors. Design/methodology/approach: This article focuses on the analysis of the most frequently used factors determining the external conditions of the companies innovation activities with the use of taxonomic analysis. The research was conducted on the annual data for years 2017-2019 for the selected European countries. The data from the databases of OECD and Eurostat were used in the analysis. Findings: The results of the conducted analysis allow to conclude that the state and organisation of innovation activities in the economy and thus, in the companies is strongly dependent on external factors. The averages and quartiles were calculated to show the dynamics of the factors. Moreover, Ward dendrogram was presented to show the similarities and differences in shaping the innovation activities. The synthetic indicator was used to determine the development path and the map of objects was drawn. There is a strict connection between the amount of expenditures on R&D and the employees’ education concerning the implementation of the innovation activities in all analysed countries. In particular, it is visible in the Scandinavian countries and in Luxembourg. In Poland the innovation activities of companies is similar to the ones in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe. The low level of GERD causes that many companies have financial problems and despite high dynamics of industrial production, the innovativeness is still at a low level. Research limitations/implications: The comparison of Poland with other countries would surely give a wider picture whether the innovation processes are performed in an efficient way. The accessibility of data, for each country, used in the research not only limited the period of analysis but also determined the selection of variables. The analysis was based on the data from the mentioned databases to make it more reliable. Practical implications: The information obtained during the conducted analysis may facilitate the process of proper decision making referring to the management of innovations. The implementation of innovations guarantees not only the company development but also greater transparency in the information and knowledge flow among the workers. Originality/value: The analysis of external factors of the innovation activities is really important as the investments in innovation activities are the more and more important GDP part and the numerical taxonomy methods enable to indicate, indirectly, these countries which should be models for Poland so that it could organise and manage the innovation processes. The analysis of innovation activities makes it possible to indicate desired directions of changes 564 A. Strzelecka in the management of Polish companies. Thus, it is a basis to take decisions in the competitive markets.

Genetic Variability and Diversity of the Agro-Morphological Traits of Torch Ginger (Etlingera elatior) Germplasm in Malaysia

Aims: The main objective of this study is to quantify the genetic variability and relationship among the quantitative traits of the torch ginger germplasm collected across Peninsular Malaysia.
 Study design: Initially, the experimental design was randomized complete block design (RCBD) but there were unequal number of replications due to limited planting materials.
 Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted at the Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI) Research Station, Jerangau, Terengganu, Malaysia on latitude 04°57.704’N and longitude 103°11.007’E. Data on agro-morphological characterization were collected for three years from June 2010 until May 2013.
 Methodology: A total of 57 torch ginger accessions were collected from various wild/ cultivated sources from seven states of Peninsular Malaysia namely Terengganu (19), Perak (15), Kedah (7), Johor (6), Pahang (5), Kelantan (3) and Melaka (2). The collection was planted in 2009 and maintained as living collection. At three months old torch ginger plantlets were transplanted into 20 cm × 20 cm × 20 cm holes spaced at 100 cm diameter of culvert. The spacing of culvert between rows and within rows were 2 m respectively. Initially, the experimental design was randomized complete block design (RCBD) but there were unequal number of replications due to limited planting materials. Data on agro-morphological characterization were collected for three years from June 2010 until May 2013. All the 57 accessions were characterized according to descriptors list of genera under Zingiberaceae family with some modifications. A total of 6 qualitative and 16 quantitative descriptors were used. The mean values of each quantitative trait data were computed and subjected to statistical analysis to assess the amount of genetic variation using analysis of variance (ANOVA). The ANOVA was using PROC GLM of SAS 9.4 software (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA). Genotypic coefficients of variation and error variance were estimated using PROC VARCOMP method Type I of SAS 9.4 software. Phenotypic coefficients of variation, heritability and genetic advance were calculated. Pearson correlation coefficient was determined using SAS 9.4 for comparing the relationship among the different traits. The morphological traits were analyzed by numerical taxonomic methods via cluster analysis and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) which was done using NTSYS-PC Version 2.1. PCA based on 16 quantitative and six qualitative traits was performed to determine the genetic variation in the torch ginger accessions. The cluster and PCA were performed to reveal clustering and grouping pattern of torch ginger accessions. Euclidean distance coefficients were estimated for all pairs of accessions, which was then used to present cluster analysis.
 Results: Analysis of variance indicated that highly significant variation exists among the 57 accessions for most of the traits. The 57 accessions of torch ginger showed high variability for both qualitative and quantitative traits. Among the quantitative traits, the highest CV was observed from number of spikes with the value of 44.25%. The genetic coefficient of variation for 16 morphological traits ranged from 9.76 to 45.86%. Broad sense heritability estimates varied from low to high. Maximum estimates of broad sense heritability were recorded in bract length (80.16%), bud peduncle length (78.74%), number of leaves (75.66%), number of stems per clump (67.99%), inflorescence peduncle length (67.60%) and bud width (65.11%). The genetic advance (GA) in percent of mean was recorded from 11.82 to 67.97%. Besides that, positive correlation coefficient was obtained between some traits. Generally, the genotypes groups were related with morphological characteristics among the accessions.
 Conclusion: Considering the distribution pattern, vegetative and yield performance of accessions, it is suggested that accessions from cluster VII (KAN022, KAN047 and KAN048) should be selected for future breeding program. These accessions possessed the highest peduncle length that could influence the yield in terms of bud size. Furthermore, the classification and divergence between torch ginger accessions analyzed in this study may assist in conserving plant materials both in-situ and ex-situ.

A numerical approach to the taxonomy of some species of the Subtribe Cassiinae in Nigeria

Twelve morphological parameters from the leaves, fruits, and pedicel of fifteen (15) species of the subtribe Cassiinae were studied using the methods of numerical taxonomy. Characters such as leaflet length, leaflet width, and leaflet length/width ratio contributed significantly in the delimitation of the species studied. While C. italica and Ch. mimosoides are the most closely related taxa, C. fistula and C. singueana appear to be the most distantly related as reflected by the cluster coefficients. Further illustrations as revealed by the dendrogram and scatter plot generated placed the 15 studied species into three groups. While we acknowledge the relevance of phylogenetic analysis in taxonomic studies as it is in recent times, we strongly support the application of numerical taxonomy to compliment findings.

An assessment of development level of villages in Lorestan province using numerical taxonomy method

In today’s society, achieving development and reducing regional inequalities is one of the most important challenges facing governments. The role and position of villages in the process of economic, social and political development on a local, regional and national scale and the consequences of underdevelopment of rural areas such as widespread poverty, growing inequality, rapid population growth, unemployment, migration, and urban marginalization has attracted attention to rural development, and many experts believe that the cause of urban problems in developing countries is underdevelopment of rural areas. In the current research, in order to determine the degree of development of villages in Lorestan province, various economic, social and cultural sectors were considered and their ranking based on the development level using numerical taxonomic analysis method has been done. To do this, we using the latest statistics and information related to 2016, and 101 variables in the form of 8 indicators (educational, demographic, infrastructure, economical, health, service, cultural, welfare and agricultural performance) have been evaluated. According to our results, it was observed that the distribution of facilities and services in the villages of Lorestan province is unbalanced, as out of 87 villages of Lorestan province, four villages were identified as heterogeneous areas and Bazvand village has a development coefficient of 0;765 as a most provided village in this province. The rest of the villages in Lorestan province are being deprived as semi-provided and deprived villages. In conclusion, it has been said that most of the villages in this province need proper management and planning to develop and increase facilities and services.

Investigation of accurate location planning for wind farm establishment: a case study

Purpose Wind as a major source of renewable energy has received tremendous attentions due to its unique features to reduce carbon emission and also to keep the environment safe. Nevertheless, to use wind energy properly, the environmental circumstances and geographical location related to wind intensity should be considered as a priority. Different factors may affect the selection of a suitable location for developments of wind power plants; thus, these factors should be considered concurrently to identify the optimum location of wind plants. Design/methodology/approach In this study, first, basic data envelopment analysis (DEA) was used, then dual DEA was used and, finally, Anderson Petersen (AP) model of dual DEA was selected to prioritize cities or decision-making units (DMUs). Numerical Taxonomy (NT) method was also used to assess the validity of AP dual model in DEA. The prescribed approach was applied for five cities in East Azerbaijan province of Iran. Findings The results indicate that wind power as a renewable energy can be harnessed in few cities, and the ranking by DEA illustrated that the city of Tabriz is the first priority. Practical implications Low environmental degradation effects in comparison to other methods and the ability to utilization at a widespread level include the benefits of using wind energy in the generation of electricity. In this regard, the study of relevant potentials and finding suitable locations for the deployment of wind energy utilization equipment are essential. Using DEA method helps us to choose optimal locations according to different criteria. Social implications Wind energy is justifiable in reducing social costs in comparison with fossil fuel plants, which includes negative effects, and its electricity can be used as a sustainable energy in the country's economic, social and cultural development. Originality/value For identifying the most proper location for development of wind power plants in Iran, DEA is applied for the first time to prioritize the suitable locations for installations of wind turbines among five different cities in the East Azerbaijan region. A number of crucial factors including land price, distance to power, rate of natural hazards, wind speed and topography are considered for location optimization of wind turbines for the first time. Also, to validate the results of DEA method, NT method is used to assess the validity of AP dual model in DEA.

Keragaman Isolat Khamir Osmofilik pada Madu Hutan dari Sulawesi Tengah Ditinjau Menggunakan Teknik RAPD

Honey is a sweet substance with high sugar content produced by bees from flower nectar. Osmophilic yeast is one of organisms that can grow in honey because their ability to adapt in high osmotic pressure environment. Twenty-seven osmophilic yeast isolates were obtained from 11 forest honey samples to this research. This research objective is to determine the diversity of yeast isolates from genotypic characterization. Genotypic characterization was done using DNA fingerprint analysis using the RAPD PCR technique. This research used 2 types of primers, namely CDU primer (5′-GCGATCCCCA-3 ′) and M13 primer (5′-GAGGGTGGCGGTTCT GAGGGTGGCGGTTCT-3 ′). Data in the form of electrophoregram are represented in table n (yeast strain) x t (character units) using binary scoring type. The data were analyzed using a numerical taxonomy method with similarity (OTU) and determined using Jaccard coefficient (SJ) in 70% of IS limit. The results of this research showed that 27 yeast isolates were divided into 2 clusters and 10 outliers with a correlation coefficient (r) of 0.924624

Providing a combined model of fuzzy AHP and numerical taxonomy analysis for sport organizational ranking and performance appraisal

The aim of present study was to provide a combined model of fuzzy AHP and numerical taxonomy analysis for sport organizational ranking and performance appraisal in which subjects were Esfahan youth and sports offices (Iran). In the first step, related indices with four balanced scorecard perspective were identified, and scientific resources, research background, professional comments, and finally confirmatory factor analysis were used. Finally, 41 indices were identified and classified in four-perspectives balance scorecard (BSC). After confirmation of final construct of the BSC, fuzzy analytical hierarchy process was used to identify the weight of indices in every four perspectives. Then, in Esfahan, 26 youth and sports offices were ranked using numerical taxonomy method. According to the results, youth and sports offices of Esfahan city, Najafabad, and Shahinshahr were in first to third places, respectively. Finally, in order to conduct performance appraisal and rank sports organizations, a model was provided through the previous path. The provided model not only could identify studied organizations situation in every executive area but also could make a framework for better management and efficient performance.

Logistics performance of European Union markets: Towards the development of entrepreneurship in the transport and storage sector

The markets globalization is one of the factors creating conditions for the development of entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship does not have one generally accepted definition. Most often, entrepreneurship is perceived as the ability to increase the number of enterprises. Entrepreneurship can be understood as the potential to identify and use development opportunities regardless of own resources. Entrepreneurship is therefore associated with such areas as new organizational forms, stimulation of innovation and cooperation with the entrepreneurial environment. Unfortunately, enterprises face many difficulties which can have the supply and demand nature. These difficulties hinder the enterprise functioning on the market and its development. Logistics performance perceived as the implementation of the highest quality of logistics standards allows overcoming the difficulties of entrepreneurship, especially for the transport and storage sector. For this reason, the article aims to determine the relationship between logistics performance and the entrepreneurship rate for selected European Union countries. Logistics performance was determined by a synthetic measure of development estimated using numerical taxonomy methods for variables forming the Logistics Performance Index. The same method was used to build the entrepreneurship rate, accepting as variables selected entrepreneurship indicators for the transport and storage sector. The correlation analysis was performed with the use of the Spearman rank correlation coefficient. The years 2014-2016 were analyzed. The availability and completeness of data dictated the choice of years, countries and indicators for analysis.

THE REGIONAL DIFFERENTIATION OF KNOWLEDGE POTENTIAL IN POLAND IN THE CONTEXT OF BUILDING A KNOWLEDGE-BASED ECONOMY

The aim of this study was to evaluate the regional differentiation of knowledge potential in Poland and changes which have occurred in this field between 2009 and 2015. The study was based on numerical taxonomy methods, including the linear ordering method. It was concluded that the regional differentiation in knowledge potential in Poland is at a moderate level, and the scale of this differentiation has decreased. This finding has been confirmed by the value of the variability coefficient, which decreased from 22% in 2009 to 17.5% in 2015. The highest level of knowledge potential was identified in Mazowieckie Province. The lowest level of knowledge potential was noted in Lubuskie, Świętokrzyskie and Warmińsko-Mazurskie Provinces.

A Data Envelopment Analysis Method for Location Optimization of Microalgae Cultivation: A Case Study

Environmental issues and depletion of fossil energy resources have triggered a sense among and practitioners to seek the ways of substituting fossil energy resources with renewable ones. Biodiesel is a green fuel which is produced from different oleaginous biomass. Nevertheless, producing biodiesel from edible feedstock is strongly criticized by Food and Agriculture Organization. Recently, microalgae have been identified as a source that can be the purification factor of wastewater and appropriate feedstock for biodiesel production. The high potential of microalgae to produce biodiesel and low-cost recovery in large-scale production encourage investors to utilize microalgae for biodiesel production. Accordingly, selecting the best locations for microalgae cultivation has a great impact on the economic viability of biodiesel production from microalgae. This paper studies application of a data envelopment analysis (DEA) approach in selecting the best locations for microalgae cultivation through ecological and economic factors. The DEA method is applied to a real case in Iran. Moreover, the well-known principal component analysis and numerical taxonomy methods are used for verification and validation of the applied DEA approach. The results confirm the applicability of the DEA approach in selecting suitable locations for microalgae cultivation areas.

Defining the Ichnogenus Arthrophycus Using Numerical Taxonomic Methods

ABSTRACTA century and a half of imprecise or overly brief descriptions and ambiguous or unclear illustrations have rendered the ichnogenus Arthrophycus ripe for reexamination. An abundance of well-preserved, accessible Arthrophycus specimens from museum collections made it possible to use numerical taxonomic methods to distinguish among ichnospecies of Arthrophycus and refine the diagnosis of the ichnogenus using measurable, reproducible characters. We defined 16 characters for the numerical analyses. Cluster analysis sorts the ichnospecies of Arthrophycus into two groups: a cluster of five ichnospecies, comprising A. alleghaniensis, A. brongniartii, A. lateralis, A. minimus, and A. parallelus, which conform to a coherent concept of Arthrophycus, and a second cluster comprising 14 ichnotaxa questionably assigned to Arthrophycus. Principal coordinates analysis supports the separation of these two groups. The numerical analyses provide a rationale for taxonomic revision of the ichnogenus and the ichnospecies that have been assigned to it.

The analysis of settlement network’s dispersion using Ward’s taxonomy method

Buildings together with related constructions and also with facilities of technical infrastructure create settlement units. A settlement network is made of interconnected settlement units that create the functional structure of the settlement network. After the period of the political transformation in 1989, changes in settlement systems have been observed. The number of buildings has increased, their function, shape, colours and mutual arrangement have changed. The aim of the paper is to analyse settlement units paying special attention to the buildings’ dispersion and their division into the groups of uniform objects (units). The similarity of settlement units (registration ranges) in regard to the concentration of residential housing and productive development for agriculture is determined. Information about buildings’ location and their function is taken from the Database of Topographic Objects BDOT10k acquired from the Centre of Geodesic and Cartographic Documentation. The level of building complex concentration is determined by means of the concentration index on the plane. Advanced techniques of geoprocessing are used in the paper. Units’ similarity is determined by means of the method of numerical taxonomy using the agglomerative combinatorial Ward method. The results of the survey indicate the fact that the level of buildings’ dispersion is influenced not by the amount of buildings in particular ranges but their mutual arrangement and its level in space. However, the ranges with the smaller area are characterised by the lower dispersion level which responds to the higher value of the concentration index. High buildings’ concentration is a characteristic feature of not only the close vicinity of cities. The analyses proved the irregular arrangement of units with various levels of buildings’ concentration without implication to the hierarchy of the structure of the functional settlement network. So, the buildings’ concentration is of chaotic character which confirms the high entropy of the settlement network in Poland.

Portfolio selection using analytic hierarchy process and numerical taxonomy analysis: case study of Iran

In spite of a large number of different models used to solve the problem of optimal portfolio selection, the problem of choosing a portfolio containing securities from different industries is still a matter of discussion among academics. Evaluating financial performance of the firm can be a crucial issue in selecting stocks. The purpose of this paper is to develop a model for evaluating the performance of firms by using financial ratios and at the same time, taking subjective judgements of decision makers into account. The proposed approach is based on analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and numerical taxonomy methods. AHP is used in determining the weights of criteria by decision makers and then rankings of the firms are determined through numerical taxonomy. The model is used for evaluating performance of firms in Tehran Stock Exchange by using their financial ratios. Then the rankings of the firms are determined according to their results.

Portfolio selection using analytic hierarchy process and numerical taxonomy analysis: case study of Iran

In spite of a large number of different models used to solve the problem of optimal portfolio selection, the problem of choosing a portfolio containing securities from different industries is still a matter of discussion among academics. Evaluating financial performance of the firm can be a crucial issue in selecting stocks. The purpose of this paper is to develop a model for evaluating the performance of firms by using financial ratios and at the same time, taking subjective judgements of decision makers into account. The proposed approach is based on analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and numerical taxonomy methods. AHP is used in determining the weights of criteria by decision makers and then rankings of the firms are determined through numerical taxonomy. The model is used for evaluating performance of firms in Tehran Stock Exchange by using their financial ratios. Then the rankings of the firms are determined according to their results.

An application of the Pareto method in surveys to diagnose managers’ and workers’ perception of occupational safety and health on selected Polish construction sites

The construction industry is an important sector of the economy in Poland. According to the National Labour Inspectorate (PIP) data of 2014, the number of victims of fatal accidents in the construction sector amounted to 80 as compared with 187 injured in all other sectors of economy in Poland. This article presents the results of surveys on the impact of construction worker behaviour on the occupational safety and health outcomes. The surveys took into account the point of view of both construction site management (tactical level) and construction workers (operational level). For the analysis of results, the method of numerical taxonomy and Pareto charts was employed, which allowed the authors to identify the areas of occupational safety and health at both an operational and a tactical level, in which improvement actions needed to be proposed for workers employed in micro, small, medium and large construction enterprises.

The Innovation System as a Pillar for a Knowledge-Based Economy - an Analysis of Regional Diversity in Poland

The objective of the study was an evaluation of the regional diversity of the innovation system in Poland and changes which took place in this realm between 2009 and 2014. In the study, numerical taxonomy methods were used. A synthetic innovation index was built with the use of the non-model method. The results of analyses may be summarised as follows: regional disparities in the level of the innovation system in Poland have slightly decreased; however, they are still at the average level. This is confirmed by the value of the variability index, which dropped from the level of 31.6% in 2009 to the level of 29.9% in 2014. Regional convergence in the area of the innovation system was accompanied by internal convergence and divergence processes occurring in parallel in provinces. internal convergence processes were observed in 11 provinces, and internal divergence processes were observed in the remaining five provinces, yet in the case of three of them, i.e. Kujawsko-Pomorskie, Świętokrzyskie and Warmińsko-Mazurskie, such processes had a marginalising effect.

Taxonomic position of two fossil social bees (Apidae)

Numerical taxonomic methods were used to localize two fossil bees: Meliponorytes devictus and Electrapis proava . The results indicate that both bees belong to the tribe Meliponini (Apidae). M. devictus was confirmed as Tetragona devicta . E. proa va is strongly associated to the superior trigonas (Trigona, Scaptotrigona, Oxytrigona), and according to the different existing taxonomic schools it should be renamed either Trigona (Roussyana) proava or simply Roussyana proava .

How many species are there on Earth?

How many species are there in the marine or terrestrial realms in the world? Biologists have tried to answer this question for the past half century. However, different estimations are made of the number of species, using different methods, estimates range from 500000 to 100000000 species on earth. There is no accurate estimate and the estimations of the total number of species on earth do not converge yet. However, the number of species of higher plants, freshwater fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals are relatively clearly ascertained. Most botanists agree there are 30000000– 3500000 plant species on earth. FishData (2016) reported 33200 fish species that have been scientifically described, of which 14000 are freshwater species. The American Museum of Natural History (2016) recorded 7493 amphibians in the world. Reptile Data Base (2016) recorded 10272 reptile species. BirdLife International (2016) reported 10426 bird species. Wilson and Reeder (2005) reported 5436 mammalian species in 2005. Adding the new species reported worldwide since then, IUCN (2016) reported there are 5515 mammalian species excluding domestic animals on earth. Why can we not get an accurate count of species number on earth? The reasons lie in differences in the definition of species, taxonomic methods, standards of species used by different taxonomists and the research scope and depth in different taxa or in different regions on earth. The species is a disputed concept, which has evolved since Darwin’s time, yet we still cannot reach a universal definition of the concept. In the past, taxonomists used morphorlogical traits to classify species, later numerical taxonomic methods and cladisitic methods were used. Now molecular phylogeny is widely in use in taxonomy, and more phylogenetic species are discovered with this method. Taxonomy is an empirical science. Taxonomists study different goups, and even different taxonomists studying the same group may hold different opinions on the standard of species, reflecting that often taxonomists cannot reach agreement on whether a species is valid, whether to split a species or to lump several taxa into a single species. Taxonomists have done siginficant work on describing species in mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians, but little work on, e.g., nematodes. Most biodiversity studies are concentrated in deveploped countries like USA and UK while the biodoversity-rich counrties like Ecuador, Indonesia, Madagascar and Peru are neglected. Most leading biologistss are working in academic institutions and universities located in developed countries, who dominate the conservation science policy making bodies such as IUCN/SSC specialist groups, Red List Committee and IUCN Endangered Species Redlist Techanical Working Group (Wilson et al. 2016). Thus, most species remain undescribed. If one day, people can carry out thorough studies on all taxa in all habitats on earth when taxonomists studying different taxa cannot standardize their definition of species, or even taxonomists studying the same taxa cannot standardize their definition of species, we still cannot get an accurate census of number of species on the earth. Nevertheless, it would be logic to estimate the number of species on the earth.