Mosquito Control Methods Research Articles

Effectiveness of Essential Oils from Leaves of Two Plant Species in the Control of Anopheles gambiae

Background: The current method of controlling malaria vectors using synthetic chemicals has caused serious problems for human health and the environment. Hence, a need for alternative, cheap, readily available, and acceptable mosquito control methods. Objective: To evaluate the bioinsecticidal efficacy of Ocimum gratissimum and Mesosphaerum suaveolens against Anopheles gambiae using the bioassay method. Methods: Oil extracts in 5 ml, 25 ml, and 75 ml serially diluted twice in 100 ml of olive oil formed 0.05%, 0.25%, and 0.75%, while 1 m in 100 ml formed 1%. Olive oil only served as a control. Twenty-five female Anopheles mosquitoes, aged 2-4 days, were blown into tubes containing filter paper-coated essential oils of various concentrations in quadruplicates. Results: Over 50% mortality was recorded in mosquitoes exposed to 0.75% and 1% O. gratissimum compared to others (p <0.05). Knockdown time (KDT) was higher in mosquitoes exposed to 1% O. gratissimum compared to others (p <0.05). Generalized linear regressions showed that the essential oils of O. gratissimum and M. suaveolens contributed 4% (f2 = 0.042) and 14% (f2 = 0.167) to the variability of mortality with time. KDT50 (9.34 - 131.5 minutes) and KDT95 (77.6 - 275 minutes) of O. gratissimum as well as KDT50 (162.8 - 233.6 minutes) and KDT95 (302.8 - 415 minutes) of M. suaveolens were recorded. Stigmastane; 4,22-Stigmastadiene-3-one (Area: 45.88%) in O. gratissimum and gamma-Sitosterol (16.02%) in M. suaveolens were identified by Gas Chromatogram as the highest dose of chemical compounds. Conclusion: The low bioinsecticidal activities of these plant extracts could be attributed to the low occurrence of terpenoids and alkaloids.

Culex-Transmitted Diseases: Mechanisms, Impact, and Future Control Strategies using Wolbachia.

Mosquitoes of the Culex genus are responsible for a large burden of zoonotic virus transmission globally. Collectively, they play a significant role in the transmission of medically significant diseases such as Japanese encephalitis virus and West Nile virus. Climate change, global trade, habitat transformation and increased urbanisation are leading to the establishment of Culex mosquitoes in new geographical regions. These novel mosquito incursions are intensifying concerns about the emergence of Culex-transmitted diseases and outbreaks in previously unaffected areas. New mosquito control methods are currently being developed and deployed globally. Understanding the complex interaction between pathogens and mosquitoes is essential for developing new control strategies for Culex species mosquitoes. This article reviews the role of Culex mosquitos as vectors of zoonotic disease, discussing the transmission of viruses across different species, and the potential use of Wolbachia technologies to control disease spread. By leveraging the insights gained from recent successful field trials of Wolbachia against Aedes-borne diseases, we comprehensively discuss the feasibility of using this technique to control Culex mosquitoes and the potential for the development of next generational Wolbachia-based control methods.

Recombinant Beauveria bassiana expressing Bacillus thuringiensis toxin Cyt1Aa: a promising approach for enhancing Aedes mosquito control.

Beauveria bassiana is a naturally occurring fungus that can be utilized as a bioinsecticide against mosquitoes. Cyt1Aa is a delta-endotoxin protein produced by Bacillus thuringiensis that exhibits specific and potent insecticidal activity against mosquitoes. In our study, the expression of this toxin Cyt1Aa in B. bassiana enhances the virulence of B. bassiana against Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus, thereby increasing their effectiveness in killing mosquitoes. This novel strain can be used alongside chemical insecticides to reduce dependence on harmful chemicals, thereby minimizing negative impacts on the environment and human health. Additionally, the potential resistance of B. bassiana against mosquitoes in the future could be overcome by acquiring novel combinations of exogenous toxin genes. The presence of B. bassiana that expresses Cyt1Aa is of significant importance in mosquito control as it enhances genetic diversity, creates novel virulent strains, and contributes to the development of safer and more sustainable methods of mosquito control.

Control dengue with Wolbachia: Insights from a two-strain vector-host model with larval competition

Due to deficient treatments and vaccines for dengue viruses, dengue control mainly depends on controlling mosquitoes. Suppressing wild mosquito population size by releasing male-only Wolbachia-carrying mosquitoes into the field has become an eco-friendly alternative for traditional mosquito control methods. By assuming an ideal continuous proportional release strategy, we formulate a two-strain vector-host model incorporating larval competition to describe the affected cross-transmission dynamics of two dengue viruses serotypes. Moreover, antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE) and temporal cross-immunity are considered in this model. Theoretical analysis including the well-posedness, the existence and local stability of dengue-free equilibria in terms of the basic reproduction numbers is conducted. Sensitivity analysis indicates that the basic reproduction numbers are most sensitive to the adult female mortality rate and mosquito bite rate. As expected, intensifying larval competition can prevent the spread of dengue viruses. Unexpectedly, increasing the release ratio can delay the peak time while increase the peak level of both primary and secondary infections. To efficiently eliminate dengue outbreaks, other control methods such as spraying larvicides/adult insecticides and avoiding mosquito bites should be employed simultaneously during the time period gained by releasing Wolbachia-carrying males.

Using UAV images and deep learning in investigating potential breeding sites of Aedes albopictus

Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) plays a crucial role as a vector for mosquito-borne diseases like dengue and zika. Given the limited availability of effective vaccines, the prevention of Aedes-borne diseases mainly relies on extensive efforts in vector surveillance and control. In multiple mosquito control methods, the identification and elimination of potential breeding sites (PBS) for Aedes are recognized as effective methods for population control. Previous studies utilizing unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and deep learning to identify PBS have primarily focused on large, regularly-shaped containers. However, there has been a small amount of empirical research into their practical application in the field. We have thus constructed a PBS dataset specifically tailored for Ae. albopictus, including items such as buckets, bowls, bins, aquatic plants, jars, lids, pots, boxes, and sinks that were common in the Yangtze River Basin in China. Then, a YOLO v7 model for identifying these PBS was developed. Finally, we recognized and labeled the area with the highest PBS density, as well as the subarea with the most urgent need for source reduction in the empirical region, by calculating the kernel density value. Based on the above research, we proposed a UAV-AI-based methodological framework to locate the spatial distribution of PBS, and conducted empirical research on Jinhulu New Village, a typical model community. The results revealed that the YOLO v7 model achieved an excellent result on the F1 score and mAP(both above 0.99), with 97% of PBS correctly located. The predicted distribution of different PBS categories in each subarea was completely consistent with true distribution; the five houses with the most PBS were correctly located. The results of the kernel density map indicate the subarea 4 with the highest density of PBS, where PBS needs to be removed or destroyed with immediate effect. These results demonstrate the reliability of the prediction results and the feasibility of the UAV-AI-based methodological framework. It can minimize repetitive labor, enhance efficiency, and provide guidance for the removal and destruction of PBS. The research can shed light on the investigation of mosquito PBS investigation both methodologically and practically.

Green Approaches to Mosquito Control: A Comprehensive Review

Mosquito-borne diseases pose significant health risks to humans and animals worldwide. Traditional methods of mosquito control often rely heavily on chemical pesticides, which not only harm the environment but also lead to the development of pesticide-resistant mosquito populations. In response to these challenges, there has been a growing interest in exploring eco-friendly approaches to mosquito control. This review paper aims to examine various green strategies for combating mosquitoes, focusing on their effectiveness, environmental impact, and feasibility for large-scale implementation and discuss methods such as biological control using natural predators and pathogens, habitat modification, utilization of botanical repellents, genetic manipulation of mosquito populations, and community-based interferences. Additionally, highlight the importance of integrated pest management (IPM) strategies that combine multiple tactics for sustainable mosquito control. By exploring these alternative methods, this review provides insights into promoting environmentally responsible practices while effectively managing mosquito populations and reducing the spread of mosquito-borne diseases.

Elytrigia Repens Extracts Control Urban Mosquito Vectors with a Larvicidal Potential

There is over 17% of global illnesses due to Vector-borne diseases and more than a million fatalities annually found as a significant public health challenge globally. Traditional methods of mosquito control are relied heavily on chemical insecticides, and led to ecological disruptions, pesticide resistance, and adverse effects on human health and the environment. Consequently, there is a persistent need for alternative and eco-friendly strategies mosquito control. Method: In this study, we investigated the efficacy of extracts from Eragrostis repens (E. repens) against the larvae of Aedes aegypti, Anopheles stephensi, and Culex quinquefasciatus. Plant extracts were prepared using different solvents, and their phytochemical profiles were analyzed. The larvicidal activity of these extracts was evaluated through susceptibility tests over a 24-hour period. Results: Methanol extracts exhibited significant larvicidal activity against Aedes aegypti, Anopheles stephensi, and Culex quinquefasciatus, with LC50 values ranging from 43,173 ppm to 58,234 ppm. GC-MS analysis identified 11 bioactive compounds in methanol extracts, highlighting their potential insecticidal activity. Conclusion: Our findings suggest that E. repens holds promise as a natural larvicide against mosquito vectors. The study highlights the importance of exploring botanical alternatives for mosquito control, offering a sustainable and environmentally friendly approach to combatting mosquito-borne diseases.

Chemical Probes to Interrogate the Extreme Environment of Mosquito Larval Guts.

Mosquito control methods are vital to curtail the spread of life-threatening illnesses, such as dengue fever, malaria, and yellow fever. Vector control technologies must be selective to minimize deleterious effects on our ecosystem. Successful methods that control mosquito larva populations utilize the uniquely high alkaline nature of the midgut. Here, we present novel protected triazabutadienes (pTBD) that are deprotected under basic conditions of the larval midgut, releasing an aryl diazonium ion (ADI) that results in protein modification. The probes contain a bioorthogonal terminal alkyne handle, enabling a selective Cu-click reaction with an azidofluorophore for quantification by SDS PAGE and visualization using fluorescence microscopy. A control TBD, unable to release an ADI, did not label the midgut. We envision our chemical probes will aid in the development of new selective mosquito control methods, thus preventing the spread of mosquito-borne illnesses with minimal impact on other organisms in the ecosystem.

Bacteria isolated from Aedes aegypti with potential vector control applications

Highly anthropophilic and adapted to urban environments, Aedes aegypti mosquitoes are the main vectors of arboviruses that cause human diseases such as dengue, zika, and chikungunya fever, especially in countries with tropical and subtropical climates. Microorganisms with mosquitocidal and larvicidal activities have been suggested as environmentally safe alternatives to chemical or mechanical mosquito control methods. Here, we analyzed cultivable bacteria isolated from all stages of the mosquito life cycle for their larvicidal activity against Ae. aegypti. A total of 424 bacterial strains isolated from eggs, larvae, pupae, or adult Ae. aegypti were analyzed for the pathogenic potential of their crude cultures against larvae of this same mosquito species. Nine strains displayed larvicidal activity comparable to the strain AM65-52, reisolated from commercial BTi-based product VectoBac® WG. 16S rRNA gene sequencing revealed that the set of larvicidal strains contains two representatives of the genus Bacillus, five Enterobacter, and two Stenotrophomonas. This study demonstrates that some bacteria isolated from Ae. aegypti are pathogenic for the mosquito from which they were isolated. The data are promising for developing novel bioinsecticides for the control of these medically important mosquitoes.

Acceptability of emergent Aedes aegypti vector control methods in Ponce, Puerto Rico: A qualitative assessment.

Aedes aegypti control has been fraught with challenges in Puerto Rico. The government has implemented commonly used vector control methods, but arboviral epidemics still occur. It is necessary to explore new Ae. aegypti control methods. This study aimed to understand the perceptions of community members in Ponce, Puerto Rico about emergent and traditional Ae. aegypti vector control methods and determine their acceptability and support for these methods. We identified the type of information needed to increase support for emergent vector control methods, and the preferred strategies to disseminate this information. Four group discussions were conducted with a total of 32 participants representing eight of the 14 clusters participating in the Communities Organized for the Prevention of Arboviruses (COPA), a project designed to mobilize communities in Ponce, Puerto Rico to prevent diseases transmitted by mosquitoes. Group discussions began with an overview of different methods used for controlling Ae. aegypti mosquitoes. These overviews facilitated participant understanding of the mosquito control methods presented. Use of source reduction, autocidal gravid ovitraps (AGO), and manual application of larvicide for arboviral mosquito control received support from almost all participants. Vector control methods that use more familiar techniques in Puerto Rico such as truck-mounted larvicide spraying (TMLS) and insecticide residual spraying received support from most participants. More than half of participants supported the use of emergent mosquito control methods including Wolbachia suppression, Wolbachia replacement, or genetically modified mosquitoes (GMM). Participants preferred to receive vector control information through house-to-house visits with the distribution of written materials, followed by dissemination of information through traditional (i.e., radio, television) and social media. The detailed information resulting from this study was used to develop messages for a communications campaign to garner future community support. Community acceptance and support are critical for the success of vector control programs using emergent mosquito control methods.

Efficacy of Wolbachia-based mosquito control: Predictions of a spatially discrete mathematical model.

Wolbachia is an endosymbiont bacterium present in many insect species. When Wolbachia-carrying male Aedes aegypti mosquitoes mate with non-carrier females, their embryos are not viable due to cytoplasmic incompatibility. This phenomenon has been exploited successfully for the purpose of controlling mosquito populations and the spread of mosquito-borne illnesses: Wolbachia carriers are bred and released into the environment. Because Wolbachia is not harmful to humans, this method of mosquito control is regarded as a safer alternative to pesticide spraying. In this article, we introduce a mathematical framework for exploring (i) whether a one-time release of Wolbachia carriers can elicit a sustained presence of carriers near the release site, and (ii) the extent to which spatial propagation of carriers may allow them to establish fixation in other territories. While some prior studies have formulated mosquito dispersal models using advection-reaction-diffusion PDEs, the predictive power of such models requires careful ecological mapping: advection and diffusion coefficients exhibit significant spatial dependence due to heterogeneity of resources and topography. Here, we adopt a courser-grained view, regarding the environment as a network of discrete, diffusively-coupled "habitats"-distinct zones of high mosquito density such as stagnant ponds. We extend two previously published single-habitat mosquito models to multiple habitats, and calculate rates of migration between pairs of habitats using dispersal kernels. Our primary results are quantitative estimates regarding how the success of carrier fixation in one or more habitats is determined by: the number of carriers released, sizes of habitats, distances between habitats, and the rate of migration between habitats. Besides yielding sensible and potentially useful predictions regarding the success of Wolbachia-based control, our framework applies to other approaches (e.g., gene drives) and contexts beyond the realm of insect pest control.

Design, Testing, Evaluation, and Implementation of an Arduino-based Mosquito-Repellent System

Aims: The primary objective of this research drive is to design, develop, and evaluate an Arduino-based mosquito-repellent system. This work underscores the importance of developing sustainable and eco-friendly solutions for mosquito control.
 Study Design: An Arduino microcontroller board is used, and an assembly language program is developed to repel mosquitoes from the surroundings. This system uses piezoelectric disks, LED lights, LCD monitor along with the Arduino board and produces ultrasonic sound to protect humans and the environment from mosquitoes.
 Place and Duration of Study: The research effort was steered by the authors in a group under the supervisor of a faculty member as a part of the course capstone project work of the Bachelor of Science in Engineering degree in Computer Science and Engineering at the American International University Bangladesh (AIUB), Dhaka, Bangladesh. The authors performed their research tasks at AIUB from May 2023 to January 2024.
 Methodology: The innovative mosquito-repellent system uses an Arduino Mega 2560 microcontroller to generate a cutting-edge solution to tackle the problem of mosquito infestations. The system can produce an electric signal that can emit mechanical ultrasound signals to be harnessed using a series-connected eight piezo-electric discs. To power up the system, it uses four Li-ion rechargeable batteries charged by using solar energy from the home solar system. Besides, it uses LEDs to indicate the status of the repellent system.
 Results: The generated ultrasonic signal is observed on the oscilloscope screen and its’ value is exhibited on the LCD screen to evaluate the system performance. Testing confirms that the system can drive away mosquitoes within its 3 m surroundings in 2-3 minutes. Besides, the system parameter and cost comparison show that this scheme suggests a worthwhile and sustainable result for making a mosquito-free environment.
 Conclusion: The development of a mosquito-repellent system using ultrasonic sound waves based on an Arduino microcontroller offers a sustainable and effective alternative to traditional methods of mosquito control. Since the system is chemical and health-hazard-free, it is eco-friendly and makes human life more comfortable. The system is portable and cost-effective, making it suitable for use in various settings.

Assessment of Nano-Formulated Conventional Insecticide-Treated Sugar Baits on Mosquito Control and the Effect on Non-Target Aphidophagous Coccinella septempunctata.

Mosquitoes, as disease vectors causing global morbidity and mortality through diseases like malaria, dengue, and Zika, necessitate mosquito population control methods. This study investigated the efficacy of nano-formulated insecticide-based sugar baits in controlling Anopheles gambiae populations and assessed their potential non-target impact on Coccinella septempunctata. This laboratory-based study employed thiolated polymer-coated attractive toxic sugar bait (ATSB) nano-formulations, delivering pesticides via nano-carriers. Adult and larvae populations of insects were collected from rice and cotton fields subjected to bioassays with 0.5% and 1% concentrations of each nano-formulated and conventional insecticide within ATSB solution, alongside a control 100% attractive sugar bait (ASB). Mosquitoes interacted overnight with insecticide-treated baits, and mortality was assessed. Further observations up to 72 h were conducted for potential delayed toxic effects. Results highlighted nano-ATSB carbosulfan's effectiveness, particularly among organophosphates and pyrethroids. Among pyrethroids, nano-ATSB cypermethrin exhibited high efficacy, while Deltamethrin displayed lower mortality. Among organophosphates, nano-ATSB chlorpyrifos induced substantial mortality. The nano-formulations of insecticide were harmless against C. septempunctata compared to their conventional form. Nano-formulations demonstrated enhanced mortality rates and prolonged efficacy against mosquitoes, having a benign impact on non-target beetles. We expect these results to aid in developing effective plant protection products suitable for IPM practices.

Mosquito Control Strategies and Insecticide Resistance of the Malaria Vector in Urbanized Land Use Types in Suame Municipality, Ghana.

Modified landscapes could create breeding habitats for mosquitoes and affect their community structure and susceptibility with implications for their management. Hence, in this study, household mosquito control methods in two urbanized landscapes; industrial and residential human settlements, in Ghana and insecticide susceptibility of the inhabiting Anopheles populations were assessed. Household knowledge and usage pattern of mosquito control methods in the modified landscapes were obtained using a questionnaire. Female adult Anopheles mosquitoes were also subjected to susceptibility tests using mosquito coils (0.08% meperfluthrin, 0.03% dimefluthrin, and 0.3% transfluthrin) and World Health Organization (WHO) insecticide test papers (0.05% deltamethrin, 4% DDT, 0.1% bendiocarb, 0.25% pirimiphos-methyl, and 5% malathion). Although insecticide-treated nets and aerosols were used for mosquito control, mosquito coils were the most common and widely preferred household method. The Anopheles mosquitoes were resistant to all the insecticides (mosquito coils and WHO test papers) except pirimiphos-methyl. Land use type did not affect insecticide resistance, but the insecticide type did. The findings indicate the effect of household insecticide usage practices on local mosquito populations and their implications for effective vector management and disease control in modified landscapes.

Assessing the possibility of using entomopathogenic fungi for mosquito control in Hawaii

Currently, the Hawaiian government uses chemical pesticides and Bti, a bacterial agent applied to larval pools, for mosquito control. These methods can pose a threat to the environment and be expensive. Additionally, mosquitoes usually develop a resistance toward these pesticides. An alternative agent for mosquito control is entomopathogenic fungi, which can kill or disable insects while they are non-pathogenic to plants and mammals. The purpose of this research is to investigate the use of entomopathogenic fungi as a more sustainable mosquito-control method. We isolated Metarhizium anisopliae from local soil samples in Honolulu, Hawaii. We hypothesized that this entomopathogenic fungus from Hawaii would effectively kill Culex quinquefasciatus mosquito larvae. We tested the fungus on the larvae of C. quinquefasciatus at concentrations of 1 x 104 and 1 x 105 conidia/mL. We found that the more concentrated fungal solution was more virulent to the larvae. Hence, this entomopathogenic fungus may offer a sustainable approach to mosquito control.

Combatting Malaysia's Dengue Outbreaks with Auto-Dissemination Mosquito Traps: A Hybrid Stochastic-Deterministic SIR Model

Classical mosquito control methods (e.g. chemical fogging) struggle to sustain long-term reductions in mosquito populations to combat vector-borne diseases like dengue. The Mosquito Home System (MHS) is an auto-dissemination mosquito trap, that kills mosquito larvae before they hatch into adult mosquitoes. A novel hybrid stochastic-deterministic model is presented, that successfully predicts the effect of deploying MHSs within high-rise flats in Selangor, Malaysia. Stochastic SIR (Susceptible-Infected-Recovered) equations (flats) are paired with an existing deterministic SIR model (wider Kuala Lumpur population). Model predictions provide excellent agreement with data from a 44 week MHS trial within the flats. The stochastic model is validated as a powerful tool for predicting short- and long-term impacts of deploying this style of trap within similar environments. Significant, sustainable reductions in mosquito populations are predicted when the MHS is active: with a mean of 9 (95% Uncertainty Range (UR): 1; 30) during the 44 week trial period, compared to 35 (95% UR: 1; 234) dengue cases with no MHSs. Long-term predictions for endemic equilibrium show MHSs significantly narrow the mosquito population distribution and reduce dengue prevalence: from a mean of 5 (95% UR: 0; 52) (no MHS), to 1 (95% UR: 0; 8) dengue cases annually (with MHS).

Finite-Time Contraction Stability and Optimal Control for Mosquito Population Suppression Model

Releasing Wolbachia-infected mosquitoes into the wild to suppress wild mosquito populations is an effective method for mosquito control. This paper investigates the finite-time contraction stability and optimal control problem of a mosquito population suppression model with different release strategies. By taking into account the average duration of one reproductive cycle and the influences of environmental fluctuations on mosquitoes, we consider two cases: one with a time delay and another perturbed by stochastic noises. By employing Lyapunov’s method and comparison theorem, the finite-time contraction stabilities of these two cases under a constant release strategy are analyzed. Sufficient conditions dependent on delay and noise for these two systems are provided, respectively. These conditions are related to the prespecified bounds in finite-time stability (FTS) and finite-time contraction stability (FTCS) of the system, and FTCS required stronger conditions than FTS. This also suggests that the specified bounds and the delay (or the noise intensity) play a critical role in the FTCS analysis. And finally, the optimal control for the stochastic mosquito population model under proportional releases is researched.

Facing the escalating burden of dengue: Challenges and perspectives.

Dengue is the most rapidly emerging mosquito-borne infection and, due to climate change and unplanned urbanization, it is predicted that the global burden of dengue will rise further as the infection spreads to new geographical locations. Dengue-endemic countries are often unable to cope with such increases, with health care facilities becoming overwhelmed during each dengue season. Furthermore, although dengue has been predominantly a childhood illness in the past, it currently mostly affects adults in many countries, with higher incidence of severe disease and mortality rates in pregnant women and in those with comorbidities. As there is currently no specific treatment for dengue and no early biomarker to identify those who will progress to develop vascular leakage, all individuals with dengue are closely monitored in case they need fluid management. Furthermore, diagnosing patients with acute dengue is challenging due to the similarity of clinical symptoms during early illness and poor sensitivity and specificity of point-of-care diagnostic tests. Novel vector control methods, such as the release of Wolbachia-infected mosquitoes, have shown promising results by reducing vector density and dengue incidence in clinical trial settings. A new dengue vaccine, TAK-003, had an efficacy of 61.2% against virologically confirmed dengue, 84.1% efficacy against hospitalizations and a 70% efficacy against development of dengue haemorrhagic fever (DHF) at 54 months. While vaccines and mosquito control methods are welcome, they alone are unlikely to fully reduce the burden of dengue, and a treatment for dengue is therefore essential. Several novel antiviral drugs are currently being evaluated along with drugs that inhibit host mediators, such as mast cell products. Although viral proteins such as NS1 contribute to the vascular leak observed in severe dengue, the host immune response to the viral infection also plays a significant role in progression to severe disease. There is an urgent need to discover safe and effective treatments for dengue to prevent disease progression.

A review of knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding mosquitoes and mosquito-borne infectious diseases in nonendemic regions.

Mosquito-borne infectious diseases (MBIDs) present significant public health risks within tropical and subtropical regions. However, the rapid spread of MBIDs from these areas to temperate regions increase the risk of their emergence in nonendemic regions, i.e., regions where diseases are still sporadic and not sustained in the population. Raising awareness about preventive measures and protective behaviors is of primary importance to face the risks of vector-borne diseases. In this context, the number of studies on knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) about mosquitoes and MBIDs has grown rapidly in response to the need to identify knowledge and practices in nonendemic countries to fight mosquito proliferation. Building upon the recent developments in this field, we conducted the first-ever literature review to examine KAP studies conducted in nonendemic regions. Our aim was to identify the community's knowledge and attitudes that shape practices concerning the prevention of MBIDs. We used specific keywords regarding the scope of this review and then selected studies that were performed in nonendemic regions for MBIDs, including regions located in European countries, the USA or Asia. We identified 32 KAP studies, the oldest from 2003. The findings in the reviewed studies show that survey participants generally possessed a rather good understanding of mosquito breeding sites. However, there were notable variations in knowledge and perception of MBIDs, primarily linked to the geographic location of the survey and the prevalence of infectious outbreaks related to mosquito transmission. These findings highlight the significant influence of knowledge and awareness in fostering effective mosquito control practices. Moreover, socioeconomic status, particularly educational attainment, and respondents' gender emerged as key determinants in explaining the variability of appropriate practices. The survey results thus show the crucial role of knowledge, emphasizing the need for widespread awareness and information campaigns, encompassing both appropriate practices and efficient mosquito control methods. Understanding the interaction between these factors could provide good guidelines for implementing awareness plans and ultimately motivate the population to actively fight against mosquito proliferation and MBIDs development.

Rice farmers’ knowledge, attitudes and practices towards mosquitoes in irrigation schemes in Côte d’Ivoire: a qualitative study

BackgroundIrrigated rice cultivation in sub-Saharan Africa not only brings more malaria vectors to nearby communities, but also greater malaria risk. To aid the implementation of mosquito control in rice-growing communities, it is necessary to understand how farmers understand, view and manage their responsibility in mosquito generation and whether they are interested in coordinating to minimize it.MethodsQualitative methods (observation grids, semi-structured in-depth interviews and focus group discussions) were used to reveal the perceptions of mosquitoes and their control in two irrigated rice farming communities in central Côte d’Ivoire near the M’bé and Lokapli irrigation schemes.ResultsAll rice farmers viewed mosquitoes as severe nuisances, and most acknowledged that they caused djèkouadjo (malaria) and were less numerous during harmattan (dry season). Many study participants believed that mosquitoes originated from grasses and stagnant water around villages. Only those living closer in proximity (~ 1 km) to the paddies believed that mosquitoes came from the bas-fonds (irrigated lowlands). However, they did not associate mosquito production with rice cultivation. Some farmers believed that there were more mosquitoes in recent years than historically because of the dam construction, but remarked on the importance of the dam (and bas-fonds) for their livelihood. Many farmers were not convinced that mosquito control could occur at farm-level.ConclusionsTo enhance accountability amongst rice farmers, there is a need for greater awareness on the rice-mosquito link, and emphasis that the link does not imply a trade-off between food production and health. Training should not only be directed towards farming communities, but also agricultural and health extension workers. Future riceland mosquito control methods must focus on improving crop productivity and address collective action problems that may occur.