Metastrategic Knowledge Research Articles

Why Do Learners (Under)Utilize Interleaving in Learning Confusable Categories? The Role of Metastrategic Knowledge and Utility Value of Distinguishing

Distinguishing easily confusable categories requires learners to detect their predictive differences. Interleaved sequences — switching between categories — help learners to detect such differences. Nonetheless, learners prefer to block — switching within a category — to detect commonalities. Across two 2 × 2-factorial experiments, we investigated why learners scarcely engage in interleaving when learning confusable categories. In Experiment 1 (N = 190), we investigated the role of the utility value of being able to distinguish confusable mushroom doubles on their spontaneous study sequence choices and of the conditional knowledge component that for distinguishing, the detection of differences (between the doubles) matters. In Experiment 2 (N = 134), we again investigated the role of the latter and additionally of the conditional knowledge component that interleaving highlights differences. Results showed that combining two factors — increasing the utility value of distinguishing and informing learners that for distinguishing, the detection of differences matters — fostered learners’ use of interleaving. In conclusion, learners are more aware that interleaving highlights differences than previously thought. Nonetheless, learners prefer blocking because they do not recognize the utility value of distinguishing, and they lack the conditional knowledge that distinguishing requires finding predictive differences. Their blocked study sequence choices reflect a deliberate investment of effort to find commonalities rather than just avoiding effort. To make learners shift their effort allocation from finding commonalities to finding differences and engage them in spontaneous interleaving, we recommend highlighting the utility value of distinguishing and informing learners about the importance of finding differences for distinguishing.

Misinformation Is Contagious: Middle school students learn how to evaluate and share information responsibly through a digital game

Digital games have emerged as promising tools for countering the spread of misinformation online. Previous studies have mostly used games to inoculate players against misleading communication techniques. There has also been a lack of research on misinformation games in middle school. Hence, the aims of this investigation were to examine to what extent a game can support middle school students' competence to evaluate online information and their dispositions to share information responsibly. For this purpose, we developed a game, Misinformation Is Contagious, that models reliable evaluation strategies and the social implications of sharing (in)accurate information. In two studies with 7th and 8th grade students (N = 84 and N = 131), we found that playing the misinformation game resulted in better accuracy discernment, sharing discernment, and metastrategic knowledge about corroboration, compared to playing a control language game. In Study 1, the effects on discernment scores were mainly due to higher ratings of accurate messages; whereas in Study 2, the effects were mainly due to lower ratings of inaccurate messages. In both studies, accuracy discernment mediated the effect of playing the misinformation game on sharing discernment. In Study 2, the misinformation game also had a direct effect on sharing discernment, suggesting it may have impacted players' dispositions to value accuracy while sharing. However, the game did not affect students' self-reported stances regarding sharing misinformation. These results provide initial evidence that a game designed to support evaluation strategies can help students resist misinformation and identify reliable information. The findings also suggest that games can potentially promote responsible information sharing.

Integrating video analysis of teacher and student behaviors to promote Preservice teachers’ teaching meta-strategic knowledge

Teachers need to notice and interpret student behavior as part of their everyday classroom work. Current teacher education programs often do not explicitly focus on helping pre-service teachers learn to analyze and interpret student behavior and understand how it may influence teachers’ teaching behaviors, which in turn may affect students’ thinking and achievements. Using a quasi-experimental design, the current study examined a systematic reflective approach promoting dual learning from both teacher and student perspectives in authentic videotaped classrooms. More specifically, the study examined how this dual reflective “professional vision” framework influenced pre-service teachers’ actual ability to explicitly teach meta-strategic knowledge (MSK) to students. Results indicated that pre-service teachers whose video-analysis reflected on both teachers’ and students’ behaviors demonstrated greater improvement in their MSK-teaching, and their students showed better MSK achievements, compared to pre-service teachers whose video-analysis reflected only on teachers’ behaviors. The current study suggests the need to integrate systematic dual reflective professional vision approaches – that analyze not only teachers’ but also students’ behaviors – into teacher preparation programs as a means for developing pre-service teachers’ capacity to promote students’ MSK.

Meta-strategic knowledge in teachers and pre-service teachers of non-university education

espanolLa capacidad metacognitiva es una competencia docente clave para instaurar el Aprendizaje Basado en el Pensamiento en las aulas. El objetivo de este estudio es desvelar las concepciones que los docentes tienen sobre el pensamiento. Se han analizado los mapas conceptuales realizados por 416 docentes y futuros docentes en los cuales daban respuesta a estas preguntas: ?que es el pensamiento?; cuando dices a alguien que estas pensando ?que tipo de cosas podrian estar pasando realmente en tu cabeza? Las respuestas se categorizaron en propias del pensamiento estrategico y no estrategico, asi como en diferentes subtipos dentro de ambas categorias. Los datos fueron analizados de forma descriptiva e inferencial. Los resultados revelan el predominio del pensamiento estrategico. Los profesores en activo tienen mayor porcentaje de respuestas de pensamiento estrategico que los futuros docentes. Los docentes en formacion presentan diferencias significativas en estrategias y subestrategias de pensamiento segun el curso y la titulacion que estudian y los docentes en activo segun la etapa educativa en la que ejercen. Estos datos apoyan la idea de que enriquecer los programas de formacion inicial y permanente del profesorado con herramientas metacognitivas puede contribuir a un posterior trabajo mas sistematico del pensamiento con su alumnado. EnglishMeta-strategic knowledge is a key teaching competence to establish Thinking-Based Learning in classroom. The objective of this study is uncovering teachers’ thinking about thinking. Concept maps from 416 teachers and pre-service teachers were analyzed. The sample developed a concept-map to answer the following question: “What is thinking? When you tell someone you are thinking, what kind of things might actually be going on in your head?” Answers were categorized as strategic and non-strategic thinking, as well as to different subtypes within both categories. Results revealed the predominance of strategic thinking. Teachers have more strategic thinking responses than pre-service teachers. Pre-service teachers present significant differences according to the course and the degree that they study and teachers according to the educative stage in which they exert. These data support the idea that enriching initial and ongoing teacher training programs with metacognitive tools can contribute to a systematic work of student thinking

A (Virtual) Bridge Not Too Far: Teaching Narrative Sense of Place with Virtual Reality

Abstract Teaching narrative sense of place to student writers can be difficult with traditional texts. Virtual reality (VR) games can help students realize the importance of this by illustrating it. This article outlines a VR exercise for students to experience immersion as a parallel to how written works transport readers to their environments. The exercise offers a visual example of narrative sense of place and serves as a guide for the students’ writing. As personal narratives often suffer from a lack of sensory details, a visual reminder can help these writers reflect on how to immerse their readers. For students to fully grasp the purpose of the exercise, metacognitive practices are used to prepare them. Meta-strategic knowledge (MSK) makes students aware of what to look for in the VR game before they play it. I present an argument for the transfer of the skill of identifying the importance of sense of place to student writing through the familiar practice of playing games and the use of MSK. Wearable technologies serve as new frontiers for learning, and I believe exercises like this one using VR can reach more students, specifically visual learners and video game players.

Exploring teachers’ meta-strategic knowledge of science argumentation teaching with the repertory grid technique

ABSTRACTThis study investigated two science teachers’ meta-strategic knowledge (MSK) of argumentation teaching by applying the repertory grid technique (RGT). One teacher was a novice, while the other was experienced in teaching argumentation. Using the RGT, we elicited the objectives and strategies of the two teachers regarding their argumentation teaching involving two social scientific issue (SSI) scenarios. The results showed that the experienced teacher had more varied and organised MSK for teaching argumentation than the novice teacher. Meanwhile, the novice teacher indicated a belief that the learning of argumentation should occur in a more student-centred manner, rather than relying on a traditional lecture-based environment. Consequently, she spent a considerable amount of time engaging students with their peers’ ideas through discussion and collaboration. On the other hand, the experienced teacher noticed that most of students had the ability to generate arguments, but that few knew how to argue based on evidence. Therefore, she helped students to collect data from various resources and suggested that they construct their own knowledge framework in order to improve students’ ability to incorporate their understanding of scientific knowledge into scientific argumentation.

Learning to integrate divergent information sources: the interplay of epistemic cognition and epistemic metacognition

Learning to integrate multiple information sources is vital for advancing learners’ digital literacy. Previous studies have found that learners’ epistemic metacognitive knowledge about the nature of knowledge and knowing is related to their strategic integration performance. The purpose of this study was to understand how these relations come into play as students learn to integrate divergent information sources. To do so, we examined the contribution of scaffolds addressing the epistemic strategy of integration and epistemic metastrategic knowledge about this strategy. Participants were 99 high-achieving Arab Israeli ninth graders. All participants engaged in writing arguments based on divergent information sources. Students in the control condition received no scaffolds; students in the strategic condition received a strategic scaffold; and students in the metastrategic condition received both strategic and metastrategic scaffolds. Integration performance, epistemic metastrategic knowledge about integration, and absolutist, multiplist, and evaluativist epistemic perspectives were measured before, immediately after, and one month after the intervention. At pre-test, both epistemic metastrategic knowledge about integration and evaluativism were positive predictors of integration performance. The strategic scaffold led to a significant increase in integration performance and epistemic metastrategic knowledge. Adding the metastrategic scaffold led to greater improvement in epistemic metastrategic knowledge, but did not result in additional gains in strategic performance. An immediate decrease in absolutism occurred among all participants but was not sustained over time. A decrease in multiplism occurred only in the experimental groups and was sustained over time. The results suggest that epistemic growth can occur in both bottom-up and top-down directions.

The Role of Strategy Knowledge for the Application of Strategies in Complex Problem Solving Tasks

Education in the twenty-first century must prepare students to meet the challenges of a dynamic and interconnected world. However, assessment of students’ skills tends to focus primarily on static tasks. Therefore, it is not known whether knowledge about successful strategies displayed on static tasks can be transferred to interactive and dynamic environments. This study investigated whether students’ knowledge of a certain strategy (i.e., vary-one-thing-at-a-time, VOTAT) that was assessed in a paper-and-pencil-based scientific reasoning task as well as their fluid intelligence and learning orientation would be sufficient to explain variance in the application of the VOTAT strategy in solving an interactive complex problem solving (CPS) task (i.e., CPS strategy). Furthermore, we analyzed whether CPS strategy mediated the relation between the predictors (i.e., scientific reasoning, learning orientation, fluid intelligence) and CPS performance. The sample consisted of N = 3,191 Finnish students attending the 6th and 9th grades. Results revealed that all predictors were significantly related to CPS strategy, but a substantial amount of variance in CPS strategy remained unexplained (ΔR2 = .583). Furthermore, CPS strategy mediated the relation between the predictors and CPS performance. Three implications are discussed: Different demands on the problem solver, knowledge transfer from static versus interactive tasks, or metastrategic knowledge may explain the unexplained variance in CPS strategy. Additionally, the results of our mediation analyses emphasize the importance of measuring strategies via logfiles to gain a deeper understanding of determinants of students’ CPS performance. Finally, fostering motivational factors such as students’ learning orientation yields small improvements in CPS performance.

Elementary Students' Laboratory Record Keeping During Scientific Inquiry

The present study examines the mutual interaction between students' writing and scientific reasoning among sixth‐grade students (age 11–12 years) engaged in scientific inquiry. The experimental task was designed to promote spontaneous record keeping compared to previous task designs by increasing the saliency of task requirements, with the design goal of making the relationship between record keeping and inquiry strategies more explicit and visible. Compared to previous studies, this new task design resulted both in a higher amount of record keeping overall and in a higher quality of information, which is interpreted to be a result of increased participants’ metatask and metastrategic knowledge arising from greater engagement with the task. The study found a significant relationship between the quality of students' record keeping and the inquiry strategies that were investigated. However, this relationship varied depending on the type of inquiry strategy. Strategies that are employed during the design of experiments (i.e., factorial combination strategy and control‐of‐variables strategy [CVS]) were statistically related to the number of complete comments (plans and intents), but not with the total number of comments. In contrast, the study found that for strategies employed while evaluating evidence (i.e., drawing inferences), student production of quality records is a necessary but not sufficient condition for effective evidence evaluation; in addition to recording high‐quality information, students must also review their records (both from design and evaluation phases).

Contribution of Meta‐strategic Knowledge to Scientific Inquiry Learning

The aim of the present study is to explore the effects of Meta‐strategic Knowledge (MSK) on scientific inquiry learning. MSK is a subcomponent of metacognition defined as general, explicit knowledge about thinking strategies. Following earlier studies that showed considerable effects of explicit instruction of MSK regarding the strategy of variables control, the present study explores whether similar effects are found in two additional scientific thinking strategies: Define Research Questions and Formulate Research Hypotheses. Participants were 119 eighth‐grade students from six classes of a heterogeneous school. Equal numbers of low‐achieving and high‐achieving students were randomly assigned into experimental and control groups. The findings showed dramatic developments in students’ performance following instruction. The effect of the treatment was preserved in a delayed transfer test. Our findings show that explicit teaching of MSK had a stronger effect for low‐achieving students than for high‐achieving students. The implications of the findings for teaching and learning in the context of scientific inquiry are discussed.

Paving a clear path in a thick forest: a conceptual analysis of a metacognitive component

The concept of metacognition refers to one’s knowledge and control of one’s own cognitive system. However, despite being widely used, this concept is confusing because of several reasons. First, sometimes it is not at all clear what is cognitive and what is metacognitive. Second, researchers often use the same term, namely, “metacognition” even when they refer to very different aspects of this complex concept. Alternatively, researchers may use different terms to indicate the same metacognitive elements. Another foggy matter is the interrelationships among the various components of metacognition discussed in the literature. This conceptual confusion regarding the concept of metacognition and its sub-components calls for in-depth theoretical and conceptual clarifications. The goal of this article is to portray a detailed example of a conceptual analysis of meta-strategic knowledge (MSK) which is one specific component of metacognition. This specific example is used to draw a general model for conceptual analyses of additional metacognitive components. The approach suggested here is to begin with a clear definition of the target sub component of metacognition, followed by a systematic examination of this sub component according to several dimensions that are relevant to metacognition in general and to that sub component in particular. The examination should include an analysis of how the details of the definition of the target sub-component refer to: (a) general theoretical metacognitive issues raised by prominent scholars; (b) definitions formulated and issues raised by other researchers who have investigated the same (or a similar) sub-component and, (c) empirical findings pertaining to that sub-component. Finally, it should be noted that since metacognition is a relational rather than a definite concept it is important to situate the context within which the conceptual analysis takes place.

Uncovering students’ thinking about thinking using concept maps

A method for uncovering students’ thinking about thinking, specifically their meta-strategic knowledge, is explored within the context of an ongoing, multi-year intervention designed to promote the development of students’ thinking dispositions. The development of a concept-map instrument that classroom teachers can use and an analytic framework for interpreting students’ responses is presented. In a preliminary study, the concept map instrument is piloted to evaluate changes in students’ conceptions of thinking after a year’s participation in classrooms where their teachers actively sought to make thinking more visible by noticing and naming the thinking observed as well as introducing and using thinking routines (Ritchhart and Perkins. Educational Leadership, 65(5), 57–61 2008). Concept maps from 239 students from grades 3 through 11 were analyzed. Results suggest that students’ conceptions of thinking do improve with age but also can be substantially developed through a classroom culture where thinking is modeled and rich opportunities for thinking are present. The concept map instrument itself proved to be a robust instrument for uncovering students’ thinking about thinking.

Explicit teaching of meta-strategic knowledge in authentic classroom situations

Meta-strategic Knowledge (MSK) is a sub-component of metacognition that is defined in the present study as general, explicit knowledge about thinking strategies. In the present study we shall focus on the control of variables thinking strategy. Following an earlier study (Zohar & Peled 2007) that showed considerable effects of explicit instruction of MSK in laboratory setting, this study explores whether these effects are preserved in authentic classroom situations. Participants were 119 8th grade students from 6 classes of a heterogeneous school. Equal numbers of low-achieving and high-achieving students were randomly assigned into experimental and control groups. The findings showed dramatic developments in students’ strategic and meta-strategic thinking following instruction. The effect of the treatment was preserved in delayed transfer tests. Our findings show that explicit teaching of MSK had a strong effect on low achieving students. The implications of the findings for learning and instruction are discussed.

The effects of explicit teaching of metastrategic knowledge on low- and high-achieving students

This study assessed the effects of explicit teaching of metastrategic knowledge (MSK) on gains of low-achieving (LA) and high-achieving (HA) 5th grade students ( N = 41). Gains in reasoning scores of students from the Experimental group (compared to students from the control group) were obtained on the strategic and on the metastrategic level. Gains were preserved in near and far transfer tasks immediately after the end of instruction and 3 months later. Explicit teaching of MSK affected both LA and HA students, but it was extremely valuable for LA students who required a longer period than HA students to reach their top score.

Developmental Change in Notetaking during Scientific Inquiry

This paper addresses the development in children’s and adults’ awareness of the benefits of writing through the analysis of change in notetaking while engaged in scientific inquiry over 10 weeks. Participants were given a notebook that they could choose to use. Our results indicate consistent differences between the performance of adults versus children and also across time. First, there were clear differences in the number of participants who chose to take notes. Second, not only did adults write more notes than children, but also the adults’ mean number of notes slightly increased over time, whereas children’s notes actually decreased in frequency. Third, children and adults differed in the types of notes they took. These results are interpreted in terms of participants’ awareness of what needs to be noted in a scientific task and why it needs to be noted, and they suggest implications for educational practice. First, because learners often have inaccurate representations of the task demands and their own future state of knowledge, they do not perceive the utility of notetaking. Second, because of these misperceptions, learners do not refer back to their notes and thereby miss feedback that would spur the refinement of their metacognitive (particularly metastrategic) knowledge and strategy use. Educators need to design opportunities for students to engage in activities that increase metacognitive knowledge of their own cognitive abilities and the demands of the task.

The Nature and Development of Teachers' Metastrategic Knowledge in the Context of Teaching Higher Order Thinking

This study examines the development of teachers' metastrategic knowledge (MSK), a component of metacognitive knowledge, in the context of higher order thinking. Participants were 14 junior high school and high school science teachers who attended a professional development course. Data collection was carried out by triangulation of several data sources: classroom observations, individual interviews, written assignments, and recordings of discussions that took place during the course. The Findings section provides a detailed analysis of the professional development of 2 teachers, as well as an analysis of the development of the 14 teachers as a group. The data provide evidence for the types of knowledge teachers need for applying MSK in the course of instruction, the most specific of which are MSK of thinking skills (that must be explicit) and pedagogical knowledge regarding MSK. The considerable overall development in teachers' MSK following an in-service course consisted of at least 3 different patterns of development: (a) learning MSK regarding new thinking skills, (b) transforming initially implicit metalevel knowledge into explicit metalevel knowledge, and (c) introducing changes in the class culture to value new forms of discourse regarding thinking. The implications for professional development courses in this field are discussed.

A Comparison of the Scaffolding Approach and the Cognitive Enrichment Advantage Approach in Enhancing Critical Thinking Skills in First-Year University Freshmen

Although there is no universally accepted operational definition of critical thinking, there is agreement that it can be improved through various means of instruction. The purpose of this study was to explore the effectiveness of a modified, condensed version of the Cognitive Enrichment Advantage (CEA) approach and the Scaffolding approach in enhancing critical thinking skills in first-year university freshman.A modified pre-test/post-test comparison group design was employed in this study. Participants were students enrolled in a freshman seminar course for first-year freshman in a merit-based scholarship program for African American students. The first phase, the Pre-Intervention Phase, included the first of three critical thinking assessment administration sessions to obtain baseline data of all participants’ critical thinking ability. This phase also included a two week period of direct instruction of critical thinking knowledge to all participants. After the pre-intervention phase, matched pairs were randomly assigned to the CEA group and the Scaffolding group, based on scores from the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal (W-GCTA) obtained during the second assessment administration session.The Intervention Phase included five weekly, 40-minute teaching sessions for both groups. During the intervention period, both groups completed practice worksheets, providing a step-by-step expert strategy for critical thinking. In the Scaffolding intervention, participants also received pre-determined verbal prompts and cues to support their critical thinking. In the modified CEA intervention, participants were encouraged to create their own personal strategies, based on the metastrategic knowledge (Building Blocks of Thinking & Tools of Learning) introduced during each session. Participants were also encouraged to provide both self-evaluation and evaluation on the contributions of their colleagues. Finally, in the modified CEA intervention, participants developed decontexualized principles for using the Building Blocks and Tools in other settings, encouraging transfer of learning. The Post-Intervention Phase included the final assessment administration session.Results indicate no significant change in critical thinking performance in the CEA group, based on both assessment tools. Results, based on the critical thinking performance assessments, indicated no significant change in the Scaffolding group; however, results, based on the W-GCTA, indicated a significant decrease in critical thinking performance in the Scaffolding group. It was concluded that the modified CEA intervention supported the retention of the participants’ critical thinking skills and facilitated learning transfer, while the Scaffolding intervention did not positively influence the participants’ critical thinking skills. Recommendations for future research and issues related to conducting intervention research are offered.

The relation between metastrategic knowledge, strategy use and task performance: Findings and reflections from a numerosity judgement task

In the research literature several positions concerning the role played by metacognition in adaptive strategy choice can be distinguished. While many authors adhere so-called metacognitive models of strategy choice and strategy change, others have questioned the extent to which metacognitive factors are associated with strategy choice and task performance and have proposed alternative theoretical frameworks wherein strategy choices are described in terms of associative models. In the present article we report data coming from a larger research project on the development of children’s numerosity judgement strategies and skills. The experimental task involved judging numerosities of colored blocks presented in a rectangular grid. Participants were 59 second grade and 50 sixth grade children, whose strategic performance data — obtained by means of a systematic analysis of their response-time patterns — were compared with interview data collected at the end of the experiment. The major result of this comparison is that not only the children from the oldest age group, but also the children from the youngest age group showed clear evidence of metacognitive awareness and understanding of different aspects of their strategic performance.

Relations between metastrategic knowledge and strategic performance

Two components of metastrategic knowledge—knowledge of task objectives and knowledge of strategies—are distinguished and assessed in the context of an inductive causal reasoning task administered to fifth graders in a microgenetic design. Both metastrategic knowledge and strategic performance improved over a seven-week period of engagement with the task. However, children were unlikely to attain strategic mastery until they had reached particular levels of metastrategic understanding. Discussion focuses on (a) the likelihood of multiple directions of influence between strategic and metastrategic knowledge systems, (b) coordination of task and strategy components of metastrategic knowledge as a central task of the metastrategic knowledge system, and (c) the generality of the present findings.

Equilibration, conflict and instruction: A new class‐oriented perspective

Attention is directed to equilibration‐based instructional studies all of which parallel natural development in that they require the concurrent construction of both strategic and metastrategic knowledge (Kuhn and Phelps 1982, Kuhn 1983). The need for this concurrence is questioned, and theoretical arguments developed for an equilibration‐based alternative instructional strategy separating the two. It is argued that this latter strategy may provide an answer to the problematic retention of invalid ideas. A pilot study is reported providing tentative support for this viewpoint.