Metasedimentary Enclaves Research Articles

Mercury abundance and isotopic composition in granitic rocks: Implications for Hg cycling in the upper continental crust

Mercury (Hg) is a highly volatile metal exhibiting both isotope mass-dependent (MDF, defined as δ202Hg) and mass-independent (MIF, expressed as Δ199Hg) fractionation. Assessing the Hg isotopic composition of the upper continental crust is crucial for the use of this new geochemical tool for petrogenetic tracing, particularly for understanding crust-mantle interaction. Here, we report Hg isotopic compositions of granitic rocks with distinct source affinity (I-, A-, and S-type) and of metasedimentary enclaves from the South China Craton. The results of more than 100 rock samples show large δ202Hg variations of −2.03 to 0.47 ‰ and small Δ199Hg variations of −0.16 to 0.09 ‰. The S-type granites studied here exhibit higher δ202Hg values (−0.58 to 0.00 ‰; n = 57) than their sedimentary protoliths (metasedimentary enclaves; −2.03 to −0.91 ‰; n = 7), suggesting significant Hg-MDF during magmatic processes. The Δ199Hg values of S-type granites (−0.08 to 0.09 ‰) are indistinguishable from their sedimentary protoliths (−0.16 to 0.02 ‰), suggestive of the absence of Hg-MIF during crustal anatexis and subsequent magmatic differentiation. The I- and A-type granites studied have smaller Δ199Hg variations of −0.11 to 0.04 ‰ (n = 28) and −0.07 to 0.04 ‰ (n = 15), respectively, but are within the range of the S-type granites. The compositional range of all granite variants may be explained by the variable intensity of large-scale MASH (melting-assimilation-storage-homogenization) processes. Our new data combined with previously published data of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks allow us to estimate that the upper continental crust (UCC) has a Hg abundance of 13.5 ppb and a weighted average δ202Hg of −1.15 ± 1.01 ‰ (2SD), both of which are higher than the corresponding values of the primitive mantle. However, the weighted average Δ199Hg value of the UCC (0.03 ± 0.15 ‰; 2SD) is nondistinguished from the primitive mantle, suggesting no obvious Hg-MIF during the formation and differentiation of the continental crust.

Magmatic Evolution of Garnet-Bearing Highly Fractionated Granitic Rocks from Macao, Southeast China: Implications for Granite-Related Mineralization Processes

The widespread W-(Mo)-Sn-Nb-Ta polymetallic mineralization in Southeast (SE) China is genetically associated with Mesozoic highly fractionated granitic rocks. Such rocks have enigmatic mineralogical and geochemical features, making its petrogenesis an intensely debated topic. To better understand the underlying magma evolution processes, petrography, garnet chemistry and whole-rock major and trace element data are reported for Jurassic highly fractionated granitic rocks and associated microgranite and aplitepegmatite dikes from Macao and compared with coeval similar granitic rocks from nearby areas in SE China. Despite the fact that the most evolved rocks in Macao are garnet-bearing aplite-pegmatite dikes, the existence of coeval two-mica and garnet-bearing biotite and muscovite granites displaying more evolved compositions (e.g, lower Zr/Hf ratios) indicates that the differentiation sequence reached higher degrees of fractionation at a regional scale. Although crystal fractionation played an important role, late-stage fluid/melt interactions, involving F-rich fluids, imparted specific geochemical characteristics to Macao and SE China highly fractionated granitic rocks such as the non-CHARAC (CHArge-and-RAdius-Controlled) behavior of trace elements, leading, for example, to non-chondritic Zr/Hf ratios, Rare Earth Elements (REE) tetrad effects and Nb-Ta enrichment and fractionation. Such process contributed to the late-stage crystallization of accessory phases only found in these highly evolved facies. Among the latter, two populations of garnet were identified in MGI (Macao Group I) highly fractionated granitic rocks: small grossular-poor euhedral grains and large grossular-rich skeletal garnet grains with quartz inclusions. The first group was mainly formed through precipitation from highly evolved Mn-rich slightly peraluminous melts under low-pressure and relatively low temperature (∼700 °C) conditions. Assimilation of upper crust metasedimentary materials may have contributed as a source of Mn and Al to the formation of garnet. The second group has a metasomatic origin related to the interaction of magmatic fluids with previously crystallized mineral phases and, possibly, with assimilated metasedimentary enclaves or surrounding metasedimentary strata. The highly fractionated granitic rocks in Macao represent the first stage in the development of granite-related W-(Mo)-Sn-Nb-Ta mineralization associated with coeval more evolved lithotypes in SE China.

Evidence for mixed contribution of mantle and lower and upper crust to the genesis of Jurassic I-type granites from Macao, SE China

Abstract Much controversy has occurred in the past few decades regarding the nature of the sources, the petrogenetic processes, and the tectonic regime(s) of the Jurassic magmatism within the Southeast China magmatic belt. This study aims to contribute to the discussion with mineral chemistry, and whole-rock element and Sr-Nd-Hf-Pb isotopic geochemical data from granitic rocks and microgranular mafic enclaves from Macao, where two discrete groups of I-type biotite granites have been identified (referred to as Macao Group I [MGI] and Macao Group II [MGII]). It is proposed that the granitic magmas were generated by partial melting of infracrustal medium- to high-K, basaltic Paleoproterozoic to Mesoproterozoic protoliths (Nd depleted mantle model age [TDM2] = 1.7–1.6 Ga and Hf TDM2 = 1.8–1.6 Ga), triggered by underplating of hot mantle-derived magmas in an extensional setting related to the foundering of a previously flat slab (paleo–Pacific plate) beneath the SE China continent. The main differences between the two groups of Macao granites are attributed to assimilation and fractional crystallization processes, during which upper-crustal Paleozoic metasediments were variably assimilated by MGI magmas. This is evidenced by an increase in initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios with degree of evolution, presence of metasedimentary enclaves, and high percentage of zircon xenocrysts with Paleozoic ages. In addition, other processes like late-stage fluid/melt interaction and magma mixing also left some imprints on granite compositions (rare earth element tetrad effect plus non–charge-and-radius-controlled behavior of trace elements and decoupling between different isotope systems, respectively). The distribution of isotopically distinct granites in SE China reflects the nature of the two Cathaysia crustal blocks juxtaposed along the Zhenghe-Dapu fault.

U–Pb and Lu–Hf Systematics of Zircons from Sargur Metasediments, Dharwar Craton, Southern India:New Insights on the Provenance and Crustal Evolution

A study of U-Pb and Lu-Hf-Yb isotope data in zircons from metamorphosed psammopelite and quartzite from the type area of Archaean Sargur Group, Dharwar Craton, India is carried out. Two age populations are observed: an older population with concordant U-Pb ages between 2.7 and 2.8 Ga, and a younger population with ages in the 2.4-2.6 Ga age range. The. Hf values of 0 to +2.0 for the older zircon population suggest that they were derived from juvenile crust formed at 2.7-2.8 Ga. Sub-chondritic. Hf values for the younger population indicate metamorphism and/or crustal reworking at similar to 2.5 Ga. Meta-sedimentary enclaves in the Sargur type area are therefore part of the gneiss-supracrustal complex of different antiquities and may not have an independent stratigraphic status.

The hot back-arc zone of the Araçuaí orogen, Eastern Brazil: from sedimentation to granite generation

This article presents new lithochemical and geochronological data obtained from gneisses and granites occurring in the region located to the east of the Rio Doce calc-alkaline arc (630 - 580 Ma), which corresponds to the back-arc basin of the Aracuai orogen. The Nova Venecia Complex, represents the most fertile source of peraluminous granitic melts in the studied back-arc zone. It mostly consists of migmatitic Al-rich paragneisses, ranging from biotite-rich gneisses to biotite-free cordierite-rich granulites, whose main protoliths were graywacky sediments. An EW-oriented section across the northern back-arc region reveals a zone rich in cordierite granulites of the Nova Venecia Complex at the base, followed by migmatites that gradually pass to the Ataleia foliated granites rich in metasedimentary enclaves, which in turn lay beneath the Carlos Chagas batholith. To the south of the Carlos Chagas batholith, orthopyroxene-bearing rocks often occur in both the Nova Venecia Complex and the Ataleia Suite, suggesting a deeper crustal level. Our U-Pb data suggest that melting processes started on the Nova Venecia Complex during the late development of the Rio Doce arc, around 590 Ma, forming autochthonous peraluminous melts related to the Ataleia Suite. Progressive anatexis and melt accumulation attained the climax around 575 Ma, leading to the development of the syn-collisional Carlos Chagas batholith. Around 545 - 530 Ma, a late to post-collisional anatectic episode formed garnet-cordierite leucogranites, mostly from the re-melting of the Ataleia and Carlos Chagas granites. A remarkable post-collisional plutonism caused widesperead re-heating of the back-arc domain from ca. 520 Ma to 480 Ma. This long lasting history (ca. 110 Ma) of granite generation in the back-arc zone requires distinct heat sources, such as asthenosphere ascent under the back-arc region in the pre-collisional stage, thrust stacking of the hot arc onto the back-arc, radiogenic heat release from the collisional thickened crust and, finally, asthenosphere uprising during the gravitational collapse of the Aracuai orogen.

Geochemical diagnostics of metasedimentary dark enclaves: a case study from the Peninsular Ranges Batholith, southern California

Dark enclaves rich in amphibole and biotite are ubiquitous in granitoid rocks and typically represent fragments of mafic magmas, cumulates, restites, or country rocks. To develop criteria for identifying dark enclaves of non-magmatic origin, we investigated dark enclaves from a complete spectrum of light (carbonate- or feldspar-rich) to dark (amphibole-rich, biotite-rich, or composite) enclaves, reflecting progressive thermal and chemical equilibration with the host tonalite, the Domenigoni Valley pluton in the Peninsular Ranges Batholith, California. Metasedimentary dark enclaves have geochemical characteristics that overlap those of literature-compiled igneous dark enclaves. When compared with modelled igneous differentiation paths, metasedimentary enclaves can have anomalous CaO and K2O contents for a given SiO2, but other major-element systematics may not deviate noticeably from igneous differentiation trends. In addition, the fact that literature-compiled mafic enclaves trend towards high K2O + CaO suggests that not all mafic enclaves are of igneous origin. In this work, we provide criteria for identifying enclaves of possible metasedimentary origin.

Electrical conductivity in a partially molten crust from measurements on metasedimentary enclaves

The complex electrical impedance of a garnet–biotite–sillimanite residual enclave in the Neogene dacite of El Hoyazo (SE Spain) has been determined up to 978°C at 200–300MPa. This well studied material represents a direct sampling of the Alborán Domain thinned lower crust undergoing partial melting. The paragenesis is garnet+biotite+sillimanite+plagioclase+graphite±cordierite coexisting with widespread (~10wt.%) rhyolitic melt occurring as inclusions and interstitial glass and developed during regional anatexis at 850±50°C and 500–700MPa.The samples were used in cyclic measurements consisting in heating–cooling ramps at progressively higher maximum temperature to observe the effect of reactions on conductivity. In the first cycle up to 850°C at 2–3kbar, re-melting of the interstitial glass is achieved with no additional reactions and logarithmic conductivity (S/m) is up to −1.5. At T>950°C new melt with orthopyroxene+ilmenite is produced from biotite partial breakdown and the logarithmic conductivity (S/m) is up to −0.7. Application of mixing models as Hashin–Shtrikman bounds or Archie's Law, shows that once interconnected, melt controls the electrical conductivity of the enclave. The electrical conductivity of the rock can be simulated with the electrical conductivity data obtained on the starting Matrix glass of the enclave and with the new melt.Our experimental results obtained on a graphitic metasedimentary material evidence show that graphite does not contribute to the conductivity enhancement and that the electrical anomaly observed below the Betics can be explained as effect of partial melting of a residual crust. Comparison with previous works on mafic granulites shows that similar conductivity values can be achieved both by melting of a residual felsic crust or by melting of mafic materials and suggests that pelitic rocks can be more common at deep levels than expected.

Timing the structural events in the Palaeoproterozoic Bolé–Nangodi belt terrane and adjacent Maluwe basin, West African craton, in central-west Ghana

The Maluwe basin, north-adjacent to the Sunyani basin, is the northernmost of the northeast-trending Eburnean volcaniclastic depositories in Ghana. These basins are separated from one another by remnants of Eoeburnean crust, all formed during the evolution of an arc-backarc basins complex in a Palaeoproterozoic intraoceanic environment. The Bolé–Nangodi belt terrane to the northwest, of mostly Eoeburnean crust is fault bounded with the Maluwe basin along the northeast-trending Bolé–Navrongo fault zone. The stratigraphic sequence, which was the key to unravelling the structural evolution of the study area, was established by means of field observations aided by precision SHRIMP geochronology. The quartzitic, pelitic, quartzofeldspathic and granitic gneisses of the Eoeburnean crust (>2150Ma) experienced complex metamorphic mineral growth and migmatitization, mostly under static crustal conditions and were subjected to several deformation episodes. The foliated mafic and metasedimentary enclaves within the Ifanteyire granite establish deformation to have taken place prior to ∼2195Ma, while the tectonically emplaced Kuri amphibolites within the 2187-Ma gneissic Gondo granite indicate a stage of rifting followed by collision. Deformation of granite dykes in the Gondo granites at ∼2150Ma concluded the development of the Eoeburnean orogenic cycle (DEE).The Sawla Suite, contemporaneous with the deposition of the Maluwe Group, intruded the tectonic exhumed Bolé–Nangodi terrane during extension between ∼2137 and 2125Ma. The rifting separated the Abulembire fragment from the Bolé–Nangodi terrane. During subsequent northwestward subduction of young back-arc basin oceanic crust the volcaniclastic strata of the Maluwe Group and Sawla granitoids were deformed (DE1) under chlorite/sericite greenschist-grade conditions. The NE-trending folds had subhorizontal axes and subvertical axial planes. Simultaneous to the DE1 orogenesis the molasses of the Banda Group was deposited concordantly on the submerged Sunyani strata after a hiatus of 20 million years. After cessation of the NW–SE-directed compression the early Tanina Suite intruded as batholiths, dykes and sheets and produced garnet, staurolite, sillimanite and kyanite in their thermal aureoles. Docking of the Sunyani basin produced the DE2 thrust related folding and stacking in the deformed and granitoid invaded Maluwe basin as well as the single stage sin- and anticlinoria in the Sunyani and Banda Groups. In the Maluwe basin the Abulembire fragment acted as a resistor and the approaching front rotated anticlockwise and clockwise around the barrier to form west- and north-directed piggy-back thrust-stacking and deformation of the Tanina Suite granitoids. Due to the low metamorphic conditions the DE2 fabric is limited to crenulation cleavages in the more psammitic and pelitic units. The fold axes are double plunging (N–S and E–W) up to 60° with the axial planar fabric subvertical. Post-D2 tectonic relaxation has allowed the emplacement of the last Tanina Suite calc-alkaline melts and was succeeded by N–S extension fracturing (DE3) along which mantle derived Wakawaka gabbroids and syenite intruded. The DE1 folding occurred between 2125 and 2122Ma and DE2 before 2119Ma. The tectonic relaxation occurred at 2118Ma. Around 2100Ma, NE–SW directed strike-slip shearing (DE4), fractured the Bolé–Nangodi terrane and enhanced the basin-belt boundary. Along the boundary, the displacement was dextral along vertical faults but, southward, it became more east-over-west thrust related. Associated tension gashes are filled with vein quartz and pegmatite and typical of the brittle sector of the crust. Tectonism in this part of the intraoceanic accretionary arc back-arc complex was concluded by limited, right-lateral strike-slip (DE5) movement which formed some breccias.

Occurrence of uranium in metasedimentary enclaves within basement granite, near Peddur and Kottur, Karimnagar District, Andhra Pradesh

Several radioactive anomalies due to uranium and thorium, associated with the mesedimentary enclaves (Archaean) within granite (Archaean to Early-Proterozoic) have been recorded in parts of Karimnagar Granulite Terrain, Karimnagar Dist. At Peddur and Kottur, Uraninite has been identified in the samples of metasediments. The metasediment from these two places have been subjected to granulite facies of metamorphism and host high values of uranium with negligible thorium. In Peddur, samples of metasediments have assayed as high as 1.96% U 3 O 8 with negligible thorium, and in Kottur up to 0.059% U 3 O 8 . Leaching studies on these samples have indicated that most of the U 3 O 8 present is leachable. This discovery has opened up the possibility of finding uranium mineralisation in Archaean metasediments and thus provides a thrust for uranium exploration in similar geological environs in India. Further, the basement granite along with the metasedimentary enclaves has the potential to act as a provenance for a possible unconformity type or sandstone type U-deposit in the rocks of overlying Pakhal and Gondwana Supergroup, in Pranhita-Godavari Basin, situated to the east of this area.

On the influence of faulting on small-scale soil-gas radon variability: a case study in the Iberian Uranium Province

In order to evaluate the influence of faulting on the variability of geogenic radon at detailed scale (1:2000), data on gamma ray fluxes, U and Th concentrations in rocks, radon in soil-gas and radon in groundwater were collected in three target areas on the Oliveira do Hospital region (Central Portugal). This region stands on the Iberian Uranium Province, and is dominantly composed of Hercynian granites and metasedimentary rocks of pre-Ordovician age, crosscut by faults with dominant strike N35°E, N55°E and N75°E. Radiometric anomalies are frequent, associated with faults of the referred systems and metasedimentary enclaves; the analytical data confirms that these anomalies are produced by local high uranium contents in rocks and fault-filling materials ( n = 34, range 13–724 ppm), while other radiogenic elements are relatively constant (e.g. Th 4–30 ppm). Radon concentration in soil can be extremely high, up to 12,850 kBq m −3 ( n = 215), with a large proportion of results above 100 kBq m −3. Unsurprisingly, groundwater also shows high radon concentrations, with observed values in the range 150–4850 Bq.L −1 ( n = 17). From the results it is concluded that metasedimentary enclaves, as well as faults, can accumulate uranium from circulating fluids, and as a consequence, strongly locally enhance geogenic radon potential. Due to this fact, for the purpose of land use planning in such uranium-enriched regions, very detailed geological mapping is needed to precisely recognize radon high risk areas. A correlation between radon concentration in soil or in groundwater and gamma ray fluxes was established pointing to the possible use of these fluxes as a first step in assessing geogenic radon potential, at least to geological setting similar to the study area.

Mechanisms of Crustal Anatexis: a Geochemical Study of Partially Melted Metapelitic Enclaves and Host Dacite, SE Spain

To shed light on the mechanisms of crustal anatexis, a detailed geochemical study has been conducted on minerals and glasses of quenched anatectic metapelitic enclaves and their host peraluminous dacites at El Hoyazo, SE Spain. Anatectic enclaves, composed of plagioclase þ biotite þ sillimanite þ garnet þ glass K-feldspar cordierite þ graphite, formed during the rapid heating and overstepped melting of a greenschist-facies metapelite, and finally equilibrated at 850 508C and 5^7 kbar. Glass appears as melt inclusions within all mineral phases and in the matrix of the enclaves, and has a major element composition similar to that of peraluminous leucogranites. Melt inclusions and matrix glasses have normative quartz^orthoclase^albite compositions that plot in the vicinity of H2O-undersaturated haplogranite eutectics. Melt inclusions show some compositional variability, with high Li, Cs and B, low Y, first row transition elements (FRTE) and rare earth elements (REE), and zircon and monazite saturation temperatures of 665^7508C.They are interpreted as melts produced by muscovitebreakdown melting reactions at the onset of the process of rapid melting and mostly under H2O-undersaturated conditions. Compared with melt inclusions, matrix glasses show less compositional variability, lower large ion lithophile element contents, higher Y, FRTE and REE, and higher zircon and monazite saturation temperatures ( 695^8158C).They are interpreted as former melts recording the onset of biotite dehydration-melting. Matrix glasses in the dacite are compositionally different from glasses in the enclaves, hence the genetic connection between metasedimentary enclaves and dacite is not as straightforward as previous petrographic and bulk major element data suggest; this opens the possibility for some alternative interpretation. This study shows the following: (1) melt inclusions provide a window of information into the prograde evolution of anatexis in the enclaves; (2) melting occurred for the most part under H2O-undersaturated conditions even if, because of the rapid heating, the protolith preserved most of the structurally bound H2O contained at greenschist facies up to the beginning of anatexis, such that the excess H2O maximized the amount of H2O-undersaturated melt generated during anatexis; (3) although a large proportion of accessory minerals are currently shielded within major mineral phases, they have progressively dissolved to a considerable extent into the melt phase along the prograde anatectic path, as indicated by the relative clustering of accessory mineral saturation temperatures and closeness of these temperatures to those of potential melting reactions; (4) the dacite magma was probably produced by coalescence of melts

Ferromagnesian silicate association in S-type granites: the Darongshan granitic complex (Guangxi, South China)

Abstract The late Indosinian Darongshan granite complex (Guangxi Province, South China) consists mainly of three plutons (Taima, Jiuzhou and Darongshan), with coarse-grained to subvolcanic rock types. There is a rough mineral evolution from the western to the eastern part of the complex, with ferromagnesian magmatic silicates sequentially distributed : Opx+Crd±Bt (Taima), Opx+Grt+Bt+Crd (Jiuzhou) and Bt+Crd (Darongshan). Restitic, cumulative or xenocrystic minerals (mainly Crd with fibrolite+spinel inclusions, Grt and probably Opx in some cases) are also encountered. Mineralogical, chemical and isotopic compositions of the granites suggest that the three plutons derive from a source dominated by a reduced, immature greywacke-psammite series, which has experienced high-amphibolite to granulite-facies metamorphism. This S-type granite complex is considered to result from various degrees of melting at different crustal levels by biotite dehydration-melting in a high T (800° to 950°C), low P (400–600 MPa) metamorphic environment. Abundant granulite-facies metasedimentary enclaves with refractory compositions are considered as xenoliths entrapped during magma ascent. The presence of scarce mafic microgranular enclaves and the high temperatures needed for melting could suggest that heat may have been partly contributed by mantle-derived magmas.

Tectonostratigraphy and base-metal mineralization controls, Aravalli province (western India): New interpretations from geophysical data analysis

Analysis and synthesis of multi-disciplinary geoscience information from geological literature/maps and from digitally-processed aeromagnetic and gravity data pertinent to the Aravalli province were carried out to address some hitherto unresolved questions about the tectonostratigraphy of this Archaean–Proterozoic metallogenic province. Based on the magnetic anomalies, several tectonic domains were identified. These domains, bounded by regional-scale geophysical lineaments, have distinct crustal, lithological, metamorphic, and metallogenic characteristics and correlate broadly with lithostratigraphic belts identified by several earlier workers. New interpretations on the tectonostratigraphy and the base-metal mineralization controls in the Aravalli province are as follows. The Hindoli sequences, in the eastern parts of the province, constitute an independent Palaeo–Proterozoic tectonic domain and do not form part of the Archaean basement complex. The base-metal-bearing metasedimentary enclaves in the central parts of the province also constitute an independent Palaeo–Proterozoic tectonic domain, which is quite distinct from the surrounding (basement complex?) rocks. The base-metal-bearing metavolcano-sedimentary sequences in the western parts of the province constitute an independent Neo–Proterozoic tectonic domain. The base-metal deposits in the province are spatially associated with the regional-scale lineaments and with the mafic metavolcanic rocks deduced from the aeromagnetic data. The regional-scale lineaments, which possibly represent Proterozoic crustal-scale faults, are plausible structural controls on the base-metal mineralization in the province. The mafic metavolcanic rocks are plausible heat-source controls on the SEDEX- and/or VMS-type base-metal mineralizations and are possible metal-source controls on the VMS-type base-metal mineralization in the province.

Petrogenetic Appraisal of Early Palaeozoic Granitoids of Kinnaur District, Higher Himachal Himalaya, India

The Early Palaeozoic felsic magmatism of Kinnaur district is represented by more-or-less equivalent Akpa granitoids (477±29 Ma) and Rakcham granitoids (453±9 Ma), which form an integral part of the Central Crystalline Zone in the southern portion of the Tethys Himalayan Tectogen. Both, Akpa granitoids (AG) and Rakcham granitoids (RG), intrude the rocks of the Vaikrita Group. Substantially low magnetic susceptibility values (c = 0.016-0.187 × 10 −3 SI) of these Early Palaeozoic granitoids suggest their nature similar to as ilmenite series (reduced-type) granitoids emplaced in a syn-collisional tectonic setting. The modal compositions of AG mainly correspond to two-mica (muscovite-biotite) monzogranite belonging to the granitoids generated by crustal fusion. Based on mineral assemblage (Ms+Bt+Tur+Ap), associated skarn-type tungsten mineralization, occurrence of metasedimentary enclaves, and whole-rock geochemistry (SiO 2 = 70.75-72.95 wt.%, TiO 2 = 0.02-0.17 wt.%, K 2O/Na 2O = 1.05-2.32, molar A/CNK = 0.93 to 1.33, CIPW corundum 0.17 to 3.82 wt.%, Av. Sr = 304ppm, initial 87Sr/ 86Sr = 0.7206±0.00235), the AG can be typically characterized as peraluminous (S-type) granite as similarly noted for RG. Higher Rb/Sr ratio and initial 87Sr/ 86Sr = 0.737±0.002 of RG compared to that of AG however indicate involvement of relatively more crustal component in generation of RG. The AG is enriched in Ba and light rare earth elements (LREE). The chondrite normalized REE patterns of AG appear weakly fractionated (La N/Lu N= 1.06-6.43) and show pronounced negative Eu-anomaly (Eu N/Eu * = 0.03). The AG and RG represent typical S-type granite suites that largely evolved due to differential degree of anatexis (partial fusion) of sedimentary protoliths, prior to Caledonian but after the Pan-Indian thermal orogenic event.

S-type granitic magmas—petrogenetic issues, models and evidence

Despite a perception that it represents a perverse divergence, it is perfectly possible to believe in the existence of S- and I-type granites (and the implications for the nature of their protoliths), and to disbelieve in the applicability of the restite-unmixing model for chemical variation in granitic magmas. White and Chappell erected the S–I classification with impeccable validity. The isotopic evidence demands contrasting source reservoirs for S- and I-type granitic magmas. However, the major advance was not the classification, but the recognition that highly contrasting parental materials must be involved in the genesis of granitic magmas. The restite-unmixing model is commonly seen as a companion to the S–I classification, but it is really a separate issue. This model implies that the compositions of granites ‘image’ those of their source rocks in a simple way. However, there are other equally valid models that can explain the data, and none of them represents a unique solution. The most cogent explanation for the high-grade metasedimentary enclaves in most S-type granites is that they represent mid-crustal xenoliths; restitic enclaves are either rare or absent. Inherited zircons in S-type rocks are certainly restitic. However, the occurrence of a substantial restitic zircon population does not imply an equally substantial restitic component in the rest of the rock. Zircon and zirconium behaviours are controlled by disequilibrium and kinetics, and Zr contents of granitic rocks can rarely be used to infer magma temperatures. Since the dominant ages among inherited zircons in Lachlan Fold Belt (LFB) S-type granites are Ordovician and Proterozoic, it seems likely that crust of this age, but geochemically different from the exposed rocks, not only underlies much of the LFB but also forms a component in the granite magma sources. The evidence is overwhelming that the dark, microgranular enclaves that occur in both S- and I-type granites are igneous in origin. They represent globules of quenched, more mafic magma mingled and modified by exchange with the host granitic magma. However, magma mixing does not appear to be a significant process affecting the chemical evolution of the host magmas. Likewise, the multicomponent mixing models erected for some granitic rock suites are mathematically nonunique and, in some cases, violate constraints from isotopic studies. S- and I-type magmas commonly retain their distinct identities. This suggests limited source mixing, limited magma mixing and limited wall-rock assimilation. Though intermediate types certainly exist, they are probably relatively minor in volume. Crystal fractionation probably plays the major role in the differentiation of very many granitic magmas, including most S-types, especially those emplaced at high crustal levels or in the volcanic environment. Minor mechanisms include magma mixing, wall-rock assimilation and restite unmixing. Isotopic variations within plutons and in granite suites could be caused by source heterogeneities, magma mixing, assimilation and even by isotopic disequilibrium. However, source heterogeneity, coupled with the inefficiency of magma mixing is probably the major cause of observed heterogeneity. Normal geothermal gradients are seldom sufficient to provide the necessary heat for partial melting of the crust, and crustal thickening likewise fails to provide sufficient heat. Generally, the mantle must be the major heat source. This might be provided through mantle upwelling and crustal thinning, and possibly through the intra- and underplating of mafic magmas. Upper crustal extension seems to have been common in regions undergoing granitic magmatism. Migmatites probably provide poor analogues of granite source regions because they are mostly formed by fluid-present reactions. Granitic magmas are mostly formed by fluid-absent processes. Where we do see rare evidence for arrested fluid-absent partial melting, the melt fraction is invariably concentrated into small shear zones, veinlets and small dykes. Thus, it seems likely that dyking is important in transporting granitic magma on a variety of scales and at many crustal levels. However, one major missing link in the chain is the mechanism by which melt fractions, in small-scale segregations occurring over a wide area, can be gathered and focused to efficiently feed much wider-spaced major magma conduits. Answers may lie in the geometry of the melting zones and in the tendency of younger propagating fractures to curve toward and merge with older ones. Self-organization almost certainly plays a role.

Delamerian Glenelg tectonic zone, western Victoria: Characterisation and synthesis of igneous rocks

Cambro‐Ordovician plutonic rocks of the Glenelg River Complex (western Victoria) are grouped into three structural associations based on intrusion timing relative to Delamerian deformational episodes. Early syn‐compressional plutons contain the regional S2 foliation and comprise the Wando, Wennicott and Deep Creek granitic types, which have low K affinity and are confined to the southwestern corner of the complex. Wando types include hornblende diorite to gneissic tonalite and contain numerous mafic igneous enclaves; high Al2O3 and increasing K2O with silica are characteristic. Hornblende tonalites of Wennicott type are less deformed and by contrast evolve towards lower K2O, whereas the geochemistry of Deep Creek type granodiorites suggests plagioclase accumulation. The nearby Caupaul Igneous Complex also developed at this time and encompasses hornblende tonalite through diorite, gabbronorite and pyroxenite. Tonalitic and dioritic rocks are geochemically equivalent and exhibit a steep increase in K2O with silica, implying compositional control by fractional crystallisation, though relationships to cumulate rocks are obscure. Crystallisation of foliated hornblende tonalites is estimated at ∼460–660 MPa from hornblende‐plagioclase geobarometry. These rocks were supplanted by late syn‐compressional plutons of the Tuloona, Harrow and Loftus Creek magma types, which post‐date D2, but are weakly deformed by D5. Tuloona types are predominantly tonalitic and comprise the elongate central granitic batholith. Mafic igneous enclaves are ubiquitous, although more felsic varieties have magmatic muscovite and are complexly interleaved with migmatites. Harrow type granitic rocks to the northeast contain abundant muscovite, metasedimentary enclaves and are transitional to migmatitic envelopes, consistent with derivation by in situ anatexis of the host metasedimentary sequence. The subsequent transition to higher K magmatism is marked by intrusion of Loftus Creek type hornblende granodiorite, of which biotite phenocrysts and a high Sr signature are diagnostic. Considerably shallower emplacement levels (∼200–360 MPa) require exhumation of up to 11 km of crust after formation of Tuloona types. Following cessation of compressional deformation, the final igneous activity in the Glenelg River Complex involved intrusion of distinctive K‐rich adamellite and granite in the far west. This coherent plutonic sequence is more elaborate than documented from the eastern Mt Lofty Ranges in South Australia and conveys a more dynamic impression of magmatism within the trans‐Gondwana Delamerian Orogen than has hitherto been appreciated.

Geochemical investigations of microgranitoid enclaves in the S-type Cowra Granodiorite, Lachlan Fold Belt, SE Australia

The Cowra Granodiorite is a relatively mafic, enclave-rich, S-type pluton in the Lachlan Fold Belt, which has been cited as a type example of a restitic origin for all varieties of enclaves in Lachlan Fold Belt S-type granites. Microgranitoid enclaves from the pluton are subordinate to metasedimentary varieties and can be subdivided into two groups according to their mafic mineral assemblage: pyroxene microtonalites and biotite microgranites. No geochemical or isotopic distinction can be made between the two varieties. Petrographic evidence (acicular apatites, xenocrysts from the host granite) suggests an origin as mingled, more mafic, magmas, which have been variably contaminated by the more felsic host magma. This is supported by the fact that the microgranitoid enclaves have isotopic compositions ( 87Sr/ 86Sr (i)=0.7095 to 0.7144, ε Nd(i)=−9.2 to −6.9) that are generally more primitive than, or similar to, those of the host granite ( 87Sr/ 86Sr (i)=0.7142, ε Nd(i)=−8.8). The spread in isotopic compositions, like their trace element compositions, is considered to be the consequence of variable degrees of diffusive exchange between the felsic and more mafic magmas during slow cooling. Several studied metasedimentary enclaves are not in isotopic equilibrium with their host granite and therefore cannot represent pristine samples of the bulk source region of the granite. Instead, they represent portions of a lithologically and compositionally diverse source terrane or accidental xenoliths entrapped during emplacement.

Age significance of U–Th–Pb zircon data from early Archaean rocks of west Greenland—a reassessment based on combined ion-microprobe and imaging studies

The geochronological evolution of early Archaean Amı̂tsoq gneisses from southern West Greenland is reassessed here using the well-established cathodoluminescence imaging method both to reveal previously undocumented complex zircon growth histories and to control positioning of ion-microprobe U–Th–Pb analyses. Several of the gneisses typically contain zircon grains with ≥3.8 Ga cores of igneous origin, mostly completely mantled by growth banded magmatic zircon at ca. 3.65 Ga and in turn partly mantled by late Archaean metamorphic overgrowths at ca. 2.7 Ga. The ≥3.8 Ga cores are regarded as inherited, with apparent dates ranging down to ca. 3.65 Ga reflecting differential Pb loss. This contrasts with published views interpreting ≥3.8 Ga dates as emplacement ages of the host rock to the zircons, with all younger ages representing later Pb loss and/or metamorphic recrystallisation. Two of the analysed gneisses have discordant relationships to metasedimentary enclaves containing accessory apatite with graphite inclusions whose C-isotope ratios have been considered as biogenic in origin. The present data show that the minimum age of the enclaves is 3.65 Ga and not 3.85 Ga as previously claimed. This has important implications for the current debate on the possibility of temporal overlap of earliest life with a bolide impact scenario terminating at ≥3.8 Ga (as on the moon). We also discuss the implication of the discovery of highly complex internal structures in Amı̂tsoq gneiss zircons for the interpretation of published, zircon-derived Lu–Hf information.

Geological context of crustal anatexis and granitic magmatism in the northeastern Glenelg River Complex, western Victoria

The Cambro‐Ordovician Glenelg River Complex in the Harrow district, western Victoria, consists of extensive granitic rocks associated with a migmatitic metasedimentary envelope. Metasedimentary rocks comprise amphibolite facies massive‐laminated quartzo‐feldspathic schists and layered gneisses with minor sillimanite‐bearing horizons. Intercalated are stromatic and nebulitic migmatites of granitic and tonalitic character; textural evidence suggests that both varieties developed by in situ partial melting. Ranging from adamellite to leucotonalite, granitic rocks contain abundant magmatic muscovite, commonly with garnet and sillimanite, and exhibit generally unrecrystallised igneous textures. Heterogeneous structurally concordant plutons transitional to migmatites and more uniform intrusive phases are delineated with both types hosting diverse metasedimentary enclaves, micaceous selvages and schlieren; a gneissic foliation of variable intensity is defined by the latter. These petrographic attributes are consistent with derivation of plutons by anatexis of a peraluminous metasedimentary protolith. The schlieric foliation is not tectonically imposed, but rather directly inherited from the migmatitic precursor, compositional variations within which are preserved by the layered Schofield Adamellite. The most mafic granitic body (Tuloona Granodiorite) also has igneous microgranular enclaves indicating a more complex petrogenesis. Metasedimentary rocks experienced five episodes of folding, the latest involving macroscopic open warps. This is analogous to the structural history elucidated elsewhere in the Glenelg River Complex, by inference a coherent tectonic entity whose present metamorphic and stratigraphic configuration might be governed by F5 folding. Structures within migmatites intimate that partial melting proceeded throughout the deformational history and peaked syn‐D4 to pre‐D5, whilst temperatures had waned to sub‐biotite grade in the southwestern Glenelg River Complex. Granitic rocks were generated during this anatectic culmination and were therefore emplaced late in the orogenic history relative to other syntectonic phases of the Glenelg River Complex.

Application of the Restite Model to the Deddick Granodiorite and its Enclaves --a Reinterpretation of the Observations and Data of Maas et al. (1997)

Mafic S-type granites of the Lachlan Fold Belt always contain a INTRODUCTION distinctive suite of enclaves, dominated by schists and gneisses of high Maas et al. (1997) have proposed complex models of metamorphic grade, generally with lesser numbers of microgranular crustal melting and magma mixing to account for the enclaves. Maas et al. (1997, Journal of Petrology 38, chemical and isotopic features of several kinds of enclaves 815–841) recently described enclaves from the S-type Deddick in the S-type Deddick Granodiorite of the Lachlan Fold Granodiorite. They concluded that the metasedimentary enclaves Belt (LFB), exposed at McKillops Bridge. That grancould be either source lithologies or accidental xenoliths, and that odiorite is a member of the Bullenbalong Suite (area the most common microgranular enclaves formed as globules of ~3100 km; White & Chappell, 1988), itself part of the hybrid magma that mingled with the host magma. All features of very extensive and slightly more diverse Bullenbalong the metasedimentary enclaves are consistent with an origin as lithic Supersuite (total area ~8750 km plus ~4000 km of restite fragments from the source, and their ubiquity in the mafic Svolcanic rocks); it occurs near the southern extremity of type granites and their rarity in both felsic varieties and in I-type those granites. These are the rocks that have been used granites conform with such an origin. The argument that these as primary examples of restite and of the restite model enclaves are not in chemical equilibrium with the host granite in S-type granites (Hine et al., 1976; White & Chappell, because they do not complement its composition is not valid, as they 1977; Chappell et al., 1987; Chappell, 1996b), and the represent less fertile parts of the source that did not melt to the point enclosed enclaves have been regarded by us as lithic of disaggregation. Unaltered cores of microgranular enclaves in the restite (White & Chappell, 1988; Chen et al., 1989; S-type granites have compositions that do not match those of any Chappell & White, 1991; White et al., 1991; Wyborn known igneous rock and an origin by metamorphism of a calcareous et al., 1991). sediment is probable. Partial melting during that metamorphism Maas et al. (1997) mostly reject the presence of restite accounts for the pseudo-igneous textures seen in these enclaves. enclaves in the Deddick Granodiorite. However, the