Metaphysical Beliefs Research Articles

The Three Postulate Idea: Between Limits and Metaphysical Beliefs in Immanuel Kant's System of Philosophy

In the history of Western philosophy, debates about truth and error have continued to develop, reflecting diverse views that have emerged over time. The question of human nature became the center of intellectual attention, expanding philosophical study from speculation to fundamental thinking. Amid this context, Immanuel Kant emerged as a key figure who brought a new approach to philosophical inquiry. Although he spent his life in Koningsberg, his ideas in epistemology, anthropology, ethics, and education gained global recognition and made him one of the most influential philosophers of the modern era. However, his views have also drawn criticism, especially for the inconsistencies that are perceived to support dogmatism, although he originally intended to criticize it. This research analyzes Kant's thought, especially about the limits of human knowledge, metaphysics, and criticism of dogmatism. The method used is qualitative text analysis, which examines Kant's main work, "Critique of Pure Reason," as well as the views of other philosophers. Primary and secondary literature is reviewed to identify inconsistencies in Kant's arguments. The results show that although Kant's philosophical system has made an outstanding contribution, there are significant areas for improvement in the handling of metaphysical concepts and the limits of knowledge, which ultimately has the potential to fall into dogmatism. This study concludes that Kant's thought remains relevant and essential, but it needs to be reread critically to fully understand its impact on modern philosophy.

The Ethical Challenges Faced by Nurses Providing Care to Patients with COVID-19: A Qualitative Content Analysis

Background: Nurses most frequently face ethical challenges due to their direct contact with patients. Accordingly, the present study aimed to investigate the ethical challenges faced by nurses who provided care to patients with COVID-19. Methods: This qualitative study was conducted using conventional content analysis. A total of 13 nurses who were selected through purposive sampling participated in the study. Data were collected via in-depth and semi-structured interviews until data saturation from June to late November 2021. Data were analyzed simultaneously with data collection using qualitative content analysis based on the steps proposed by Graneheim and Lundman. Besides, data accuracy and robustness were checked, and ethical standards were followed. Results: Data analysis led to the identification of two main themes including threatening adherence to professional obligations and experiencing moral distress in patient care. Conclusion: Based on the findings, nurses mentioned a large number of ethical challenges such as the risk of injustice and loss of responsibility in providing care, decision conflicts, weakening ethical concepts such as patience and kindness, conflict between professional obligations and personal commitments, and the lack of attention to metaphysical beliefs. The results of this study highlighted the importance of educational planning, psychological and economic support, gratitude and empathy shown by authorities, providing security in the workplace, and developing face-to-face psychological interventions based on nursing needs.

Comforting delusions? How to evaluate the plausibility of mystical-type insights in psychedelic experiences

ABSTRACT Psychedelics can facilitate mystical-type insights and beliefs, such as the belief that the fundamental nature of reality is loving consciousness. These belief changes could underlie the positive effects of psychedelics on wellbeing. However, mystical-type beliefs have been criticized of being delusional, as they contradict naturalism. Here I argue that naturalism is one metaphysical position among several competing ones. There is no definite way of choosing one metaphysical theory over others, as there are several metaphysical positions that are internally consistent and compatible with scientific knowledge. This calls for metaphysical agnosticism, which entails that psychedelic-facilitated metaphysical beliefs cannot be considered as delusional simply if they contradict naturalism. However, the challenge is to distinguish between beliefs that are strictly metaphysical and other mystical-type beliefs, which can include, for example, paranormal beliefs. Metaphysical agnosticism does not apply to the latter and they can be considered as problematic. I apply metaphysical agnosticism to evaluate mystical-type belief changes associated with the use of psychedelics, as indicated by empirical research. I consider the possibility that mystical-type beliefs are ineffable and non-conceptual, which entails that we should not take conceptualizations of them too seriously. I conclude by discussing the implications of metaphysical agnosticism for psychedelic-assisted therapy.

Вера и разум в индийской философии

The author focuses on the relationship between reason and faith in Indian philo­sophy. He divides the spectrum of possible philosophical views into three areas: 1) the excessive application of critical reasoning, which leads to the rejection of all faiths; 2) the common sense perspective; 3) uncritical adherence to faith. The author distinguishes between “belief” based on common sense and “faith” which is understood as acceptance of metaphysical beliefs. Gokhale speaks at length about pramāṇas (means of valid cognition), of which in India there were basically recognized three: direct perception (pratyakṣa), inference (anu­māna), and the testimony of verbal authority (śabda or āgama). Inferences were usually divided into empirical and non-empirical, and the latter could be used both to justify facts within this-worldly limits and metaphysical facts. Verbal evi­dence, in turn, was divided into ordinary and extraordinary. The former may serve to draw conclusions about “mundane” matters, while the latter are intended to justify dogmatic beliefs. To sum up, the author arranges Indian philosophical teachings as follows (in the direction from more rationalist to more adherent to faith): extreme skepticism, then the teachings of “the learned” Cārvākas (In­dian “materialists”) who accepted inference as means of valid cognition, then Buddhism, which was critical of matters of faith, Jainism, Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika, which used non-empirical inference to justify matters of faith, and finally – Mīmāṃsā, Vedānta, Vyākaraṇa (the teaching of the “Grammarians”), and the Dharmaśāstra which insisted on the primacy of faith and scripture

The Metaphysics of Religious Diversity: From Homogenizing Theological Agendas to Conceptual Justice

An increasing number of voices have been calling for philosophy of religion to expand beyond a preoccupation with the “rationality of theism.” Religious pluralist theories of religious diversity might be expected to exemplify a broader scope; in practice, however, such theories are often hampered by theological agendas that prioritize convergence over attention to differences. Focusing on approaches to the metaphysics of religious diversity, this article distinguishes between (a) approaches that prioritize the discovery of the fundamental truth behind specific forms of metaphysical belief and (b) approaches that foreground the variety of metaphysical beliefs held by diverse religious communities. Although these approaches need not be incompatible, the former is apt to emphasize homogeneity whereas the latter encourages awareness of nuance and variegation. Taking diversity among Hindu conceptions of the divine as a case in point, the article seeks to make conceptual space for a philosophy of religious diversity that is radically pluralist and critically descriptive.

Endorsement of metaphysical idealism mediates a link between past use of psychedelics and wellbeing

It has been proposed that psychedelics promote wellbeing through spiritual-type transformations, involving changes in metaphysical beliefs. Past empirical research shows a link between the use of psychedelics and the endorsement of non-physicalist metaphysical beliefs. However, non-physicalist beliefs encompass a wide range of metaphysical ideas, and their links to wellbeing and psychedelics use remain unclear. We utilized a cross-sectional Internet survey to probe the metaphysical beliefs of participants (N = 701) with past experience of classical psychedelics, using a novel 42-item questionnaire (Core Metaphysical Beliefs, CMB), encompassing a wide range of metaphysical beliefs. Factor analysis of CMB revealed two factors, Idealism and Materialism. In network analyses, Idealism was linked to psychological insight in a past psychedelic experience (E = 0.24) and average use of psychedelics (E = 0.16), and predicted wellbeing (Es = 0.13 and 0.22). Mediation analyses showed an indirect link from past psychedelics use through Idealism to wellbeing (ps ≤ .005). Non-Physicalist Beliefs or Materialism were not significant mediators. The results indicate that Idealism specifically, not non-physicalist beliefs generally, mediate a link between the use of psychedelics and wellbeing. Future research is required to establish whether the link is causal, and to understand what the Idealism factor means.

Psychedelic therapies and belief change: are there risks of epistemic harm or epistemic injustice?

ABSTRACT Psychedelic-assisted psychotherapies (PAPs) have shown promise in treating mental health disorders, but concerns persist regarding their potential to elicit “false beliefs” through altered states of consciousness. Some argue that metaphysical or mystical beliefs conflicting with philosophical naturalism could signify “epistemic harm” in patients. We contend that such accusations may conceal a form of epistemic injustice by disqualifying non-naturalistic beliefs under a presumption of epistemic superiority, compromising the validation of pathologized subjective states. We argue that fostering exotic metaphysical beliefs in PAPs could be considered epistemically and medically benign, with the primary focus on generating positive mental health outcomes rather than instilling specific metaphysical convictions. We explore the capacity of PAPs to modify beliefs, examine allegations of epistemic harm and injustice, adresse the “comforting delusion” objection, and discuss the importance of respecting patients’ epistemic agency and cognitive liberty. We contrast philosophical naturalism with epistemic pluralism, advocating for the latter in PAPs. Finally we discuss implications for the future of psychedelic research and therapy, emphasizing the need to prioritize therapeutic outcomes over the specific beliefs elicited.

How Do Psychedelics Reduce Fear of Death?

Increasing evidence suggests that psychedelic experiences, undergone in controlled conditions, can have various durable psychological benefits. One such benefit is reductions in fear of death, which have been attested in both psychiatric patients and healthy people. This paper addresses the question: how, exactly, do psychedelic experiences reduce fear of death? It argues, against some prominent proposals, that they do so mainly by promoting non-physicalist metaphysical beliefs. This conclusion has implications for two broader debates: one about the mechanisms of psychedelic therapy, and one about the potential non-medical uses of psychedelics for the alleviation of existential angst in psychiatrically healthy people. On the first count, the paper argues that the role of metaphysical belief change in fear of death supports the “Relaxed Beliefs Under Psychedelics” (REBUS) model of psychedelic therapy over alternative accounts. On the second count, the paper argues that the role of metaphysical belief change undermines the proposed use of psychedelics in the “neuroexistentialist” project of naturalizing spirituality. The best available evidence suggests that when psychedelic experiences reduce existential angst and restore a sense of meaning in life, they do so primarily by persuading people of the falsity of a broadly naturalistic worldview, and thus do not help reconcile people to the truth of such a worldview.

Investigating the relationship between changes in metaphysical beliefs and death anxiety following a significant psychedelic experience

Research examining the potential of the psychedelic experience to alter attitudes toward death is steadily emerging. However, the specific mechanisms leading to this change are not well understood. The present study investigated the potential relationship between changes in metaphysical beliefs and changes in death anxiety following a single significant psychedelic experience. A total of 155 participants completed a retrospective questionnaire that included questions about their acute experience and changes in death anxiety and metaphysical beliefs following a significant psychedelic experience. Although some participants reported an increase in death anxiety, there was an overall significant reduction in death anxiety from before to after the experience. Improvements in death anxiety were positively correlated with changes in belief in panpsychism, but no other measured metaphysical beliefs. The findings from this exploratory study provide direction for future research looking at the relationship between changes in metaphysical beliefs and death anxiety in the context of psychedelic experiences.

Psychedelic Experiences Increase Mind Perception but do not Change Atheist-Believer Status: A Prospective Longitudinal Study

ABSTRACT Recent studies suggest psychedelic use may be associated with changes in a variety of beliefs or belief-like states, including increased 1) mind perception, 2) non-naturalistic beliefs, and 3) Atheist-Believer status (e.g. believer, agnostic, or nonbeliever). We conducted a prospective longitudinal study among participants (N = 657) who planned to have a psilocybin experience outside a laboratory setting. We asked participants about their beliefs concerning mind perception of various entities, specific metaphysical positions, and Atheist-Believer status both before (and after their experience. Replicating previous findings, we observed increases in mind perception across a variety of living and non-living targets (e.g. plants, rocks). However, we found little to no change in metaphysical beliefs (e.g. dualism) or Atheist-Believer status. Taken together, these findings contrast with those from cross-sectional studies that psilocybin experiences result in changes to Atheist-Believer status and non-naturalistic beliefs but support the relevance of mind perception and mentalization.

Naturalism and the hard problem of mysticism in psychedelic science.

Psychedelic substances are known to facilitate mystical-type experiences which can include metaphysical beliefs about the fundamental nature of reality. Such insights have been criticized as being incompatible with naturalism and therefore false. This leads to two problems. The easy problem is to elaborate on what is meant by the "fundamental nature of reality," and whether mystical-type conceptions of it are compatible with naturalism. The hard problem is to show how mystical-type insights, which from the naturalistic perspective are brain processes, could afford insight into the nature of reality beyond the brain. I argue that naturalism is less restrictive than commonly assumed, allowing that reality can be more than what science can convey. I propose that what the mystic refers to as the ultimate nature of reality can be considered as its representation- and observation-independent nature, and that mystical-type conceptions of it can be compatible with science. However, showing why the claims of the mystic would be true requires answering the hard problem. I argue that we can in fact directly know the fundamental nature of one specific part of reality, namely our own consciousness. Psychedelics may amplify our awareness of what consciousness is in itself, beyond our conceptual models about it. Moreover, psychedelics may aid us to become aware of the limits of our models of reality. However, it is far from clear how mystical-type experience could afford access to the fundamental nature of reality at large, beyond one's individual consciousness. I conclude that mystical-type conceptions about reality may be compatible with naturalism, but not verifiable.

Exploring the Influence of Decisionmaking Style and Financial Status of Cancer Patients on Varied Cultural Aspects of Decision Process

Though many studies have linked shared decision-making with positive patient outcomes and patient satisfaction, there is less research on the practicality and feasibility of such an approach, specifically, in India. Recent findings indicate that contextual constraints of the patients and family caregivers are fused with and inevitably shape their decision-making style. This study investigates the influence of individual (paternalistic and shared decision-making style) and contextual (financial status of the patients) factors on certain cultural aspects of decision process, namely, trust in doctors, patient’s agency, emotional distress and attribution of responsibility. Data were collected using a survey questionnaire from a sample of 306 participants. Linear mixed models were used to analyse the responses. The results indicate that a shift towards shared approaches does yield qualitatively superior outcomes in terms of increased trust in doctors and patients’ agency along with reduced emotional distress. The study also emphasises the role of cultural metaphysical beliefs in attributing responsibility for treatment decisions. Further, low financial status was found to be associated with higher trust in doctors, lower patient agency, and increased emotional distress for both patients and family caregivers. The move towards shared decision-making, considering the contextual realities of patients, could be instrumental in addressing critical issues, such as prevalence of collusion, superficial role of informed consent, and high reliance on doctors’ authority or expertise.

Communism and Complexity: A dichotomous study of Iqbal Singh in Khushwant Singh's Novel, Train to Pakistan

This research paper delves into the complex character of Iqbal Singh in “Train to Pakistan.” As a representative of the People’s Party of India and a communist, he is dispatched to Mano Majra to address socio-economic issues. The narrative explores his interactions, distinct urban traits, and the challenges he faces in a rural setting. Iqbal’s commitment to communism is evident as he discusses poverty, corruption, and societal disparities. His perspective on crime emphasizes its societal roots, challenging conventional views on criminality. The paper also highlights Iqbal’s iews on population control, hygiene, and his disillusionment with societal norms. The character’s disdain for Indian cultural aspects, including religion, Yoga, art, and music, reflects his staunch communist ideology. His skepticism towards metaphysical beliefs and indifference to values underscore a profound internal conflict. The narrative delves into Iqbal’s encounters with the police, his detention, and the societal issues he grapples with in Mano Majra. The research elucidates Iqbal’s role as a missionary striving to avert violence during the partition, emphasizing his dedication to communism. However, it notes his limited understanding of India’s diverse religious traditions, exposing a certain immaturity in his perspective. Overall, the paper navigates Iqbal’s multifaceted character, exploring the intersections of ideology, social dynamics, and personal growth within the context of “Train to Pakistan.”

Batı Düşüncesinde Din-Bilim İlişkisi: Tarihsel bir İnceleme

Concepts are the products of the human mind and imagination that have emerged in the context of history-society. For this reason, their meaning contents also change throughout history. In this context, science and religion are two important concepts that the human mind has produced in history. However, both have found a wide application area in practical life and have influenced each other interactively throughout history. Until the emergence of scientific thought, religions have gained the power to organize human and social life by undertaking the task of meeting the need for knowledge of human beings. With the emergence of scientific thinking ability, the way religions describe and explain nature and its contents has also been discussed. However, the attempt to think scientifically, which took off in Ancient Greece in European history, could not show a significant presence during the Medieval Ages, when Christianity determined scientific thought. Some important scientific, social and economic developments that took place in Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries led to the questioning of the authority of the Church, and brought the importance and value of scientific thought back to the agenda of the Western people. As the power of science to explain nature increased, the power of institutional religion to determine thought began to decline. However, when we look closely at this period, it can be seen that the leading figures of the scientific revolution - although they are free-thinking people - also have sincere religious and metaphysical beliefs, and the struggle is mostly tied around the “problem of authority”. In the following centuries, as modern science began to make itself felt more and more in public life with its spectacular achievements, institutional religion would have to largely leave the public sphere. From now on, science will claim to establish it on earth in return for the claim of heaven provided by religions in the next world. However, with the understanding that science cannot answer the existential problems of human beings and the need for certainty with the 20th century, the “sacred” has succeeded in reproducing itself in a new form. Thus, the history of science has clearly shown us once again that it is not possible to completely remove metaphysical beliefs from the human mind and scientific thought.

From Altered States to Metaphysics: The Epistemic Status of Psychedelic-induced Metaphysical Beliefs

AbstractPsychedelic substances elicit powerful, uncanny conscious experiences that are thought to possess therapeutic value. In those who undergo them, these altered states of consciousness often induce shifts in metaphysical beliefs about the fundamental structure of reality. The contents of those beliefs range from contentious to bizarre, especially when considered from the point of view of naturalism. Can chemically induced, radically altered states of consciousness provide reasons for or play some positive epistemic role with respect to metaphysical beliefs? In this paper, I discuss a view that has been underexplored in recent literature. I argue that psychedelic states can be rationally integrated into one’s epistemic life. Consequently, updating one’s metaphysical beliefs based on altered states of consciousness does not have to constitute an instance of epistemic irrationality.

Philosophical strategies for nature of science based on worldviews: The quantum interference of single electron

This study aims to present a strategy to transform the worldviews of students, especially college science classrooms, into desirable current worldviews (Darwin, Quantum mechanics, Einstein, refer to Fig 1). Above all, the worldviews, that is metaphysical belief, needs to be changed. This is because metaphysical belief is the basis for the whole framework of conception. Since the previous study emphasized epistemological belief only, an emphasis was placed on metaphysical belief on which epistemological belief is based. Therefore, the two beliefs should be used to elucidate in the education of Nature of Science. Metaphysical belief in the science of cosmic order, symmetry, or disorder is often important in scientific research and can lead to an epistemological view that can select or reject a certain kind of explanation. Specially, the two-slit experiment with single electrons is a radical illustration of another paradigm shift, from classical (mechanistic materialism) to quantum physics (desirable dialectical materialism). The double slit electron experiment creates sensuous images that can be grasped at once. Because quantum mechanics is inherently abstract, it is difficult to accept its meaning.

The Identity of Places of Worship as a Means of Spiritualism and Political Propaganda in Indonesia

Indonesia has a unique and diverse religious landscape, with differences in religious life due to the spread of religion assimilated by local culture. This study aims to explain the identity of places of worship as a means of spiritualism in Indonesia. In addition, how are places of worship also possibly a means of disseminating political propaganda. This study used a literature review research methodology through data collection techniques involving reviewing books, relevant literature in academic writings, notes, and various reports related to the article theme of Identity of Places of Worship as a Means of Spiritualism and Political Propaganda in Indonesia. It is known that a place of worship is a gathering place for people who seek to practice their beliefs and their faith, therefore such facilities are vital for inter alia, various religious practices and beliefs to be exercised. However, this maybe different if the existence of a place of worship is used as a means of practical political propaganda dissemination. Places of worship can have two sides of interest, namely first, places of worship are an effective means of spiritualism and spirituality for adherents of religions in self-healing related to psychological and divine values. Spiritualism is the metaphysical belief that the world is comprised of at least two fundamental substances, matter and spirit. There is of course also spirituality which connotes that people recognize and have a feeling or sense or belief that there is something greater than oneself, and thus a lot more to being human than only sensory experiences, and especially that the greater whole of which people are part and parcel, is in essence cosmic or divine in nature. Second, places of worship may also often be abused and used as a means of political propaganda spreading which is carried out intentionally and consciously to strengthen the intention of a political attitude or is an opinion desired by certain parties or even politicians.

Inference to the Best Explanation, Naturalism, and Theism

De Ray argues that relying on inference to the best explanation (IBE) requires the metaphysical belief that most phenomena have explanations. I object that instead the metaphysical belief requires the use of IBE. De Ray uses IBE himself to establish theism that God is the cause of the metaphysical belief, and thus he has the burden of establishing the metaphysical belief independently of using IBE. Naturalism that the world is the cause of the metaphysical belief is preferable to theism, contrary to what de Ray thinks.

The Secularization of Knowledge in the Age of Reformation

This article argues that the process of secularization of knowledge is essentially related and derived in complex and unintended ways from the doctrinal disagreements of the reformation era. The doctrinal disagreements were dual, between the Christian belief systems and between the monastic, scholastic and humanist movements. These disagreements in many forms also existed in the Islamic intellectual traditions in which the period of the three movements differed from that of Christianity. Conversations between various intellectual movements shall facilitate us in understanding the character of Christendom’s vibrant, varied and sometimes contentious intellectual culture during the reformation, with its monastic, scholastic, scientific and humanistic strands. This will, in turn, enable us to see how this culture and its institutional settings were affected by the reformation. The article will also discuss the contrasting claims of Islamic knowledge tradition on the secularization of knowledge through the development of intellectual movements of scholasticism and humanism in Islam. A significant part of the argument is that the secularization of knowledge in the West was not an inevitable product of the enlightenment. It was rather more of a contingent process derived from the interaction between people, institutions, assumptions, metaphysical belief systems, the exercise of power and human desires. This work has primarily referred to the secondary literature to draw historical inferences, debates and departures in intellectual movements of reformation times, to understand the process of secularization of knowledge.

A comparison between auditory hallucinations, interpretation of voices, and formal thought disorder in dissociative identity disorder and schizophrenia spectrum disorders.

Dissociative identity disorder (DID) and schizophrenia-spectrum disorders (SSD) share some overlapping phenomenological features making accurate diagnosis more difficult. Childhood abuse and depersonalization have been associated with psychotic symptoms across psychological disorders but their relationship to psychotic phenomenology remains understudied. The present study used quantitative measures to examine (1) similarities and differences in phenomenological voice hearing experiences, interpretations of voices, and thought disorder symptoms in individuals with DID (n = 44) or SSD (n = 45), and (2) whether depersonalization and childhood maltreatment influenced the initial pattern of findings. DID participants perceived their voices as being more internally located and generated, louder, and uncontrollable than SSD participants. Furthermore, the DID participants endorsed a greater frequency of thought disorder symptoms. Adding the covariates (sex, depersonalization, and child maltreatment) did not change the findings associated with location and origin of voices, and derailment, but there were now no differences in loudness or controllability. However, the schizophrenia sample reported more distress and metaphysical beliefs associated with voices, as well as more thought disorder incoherence and word substitution with the covariates controlled. While tentative, metaphysical interpretations of voices, incoherent thoughts and word substitution may reflect more psychotic processes.