Metaphorical Transfer Research Articles

Evaluative Vocabulary Denoting Dishonest Behavior in the German Language

Unfaithfulness and betrayal have always been viewed as a crime from a moral standpoint and received negative evaluation since they were associated with a violation of loyalty to a common cause, the bonds of solidarity, friendship, camaraderie, love, fidelity, and deserting to enemy. Great sages and righteous people considered betrayal and delations as a terrible evil. This article deals with the semantics and structure of stylistically marked vocabulary denoting dishonest human behavior in the German language, in particular a delation, treason, adultery, betrayal etc. Many words of the semantics under analysis have an emotional and expressive connotation which has occurred through metonymic and metaphorical transfers of inanimate objects or animals, birds to humans. The metonymic model «a clothing item – a name of a person based on this clothing item» demonstrates high productivity in this regard. A distinctive differentiation of German nouns by subject and/or object of delation is due to the peculiarities of their word formation structure: composites are typically used to nominate informants of a certain organisation, and non-derivative (root) words are characterised by a broad context of use. In axiological terms, the vocabulary under analysis is of a distinct pejorative character which indicates the negative attitude of German linguistic culture towards delations, treason, adultery, betrayal and those who committed them. The derivation of evaluative vocabulary occurs according to the models and methods of formation of German literary language. Substantive lexemes are productively formed by suffixation and compounding, and verbs by a prefixal method respectively. As a further research perspective, it is proposed to consider this issue in a comparative aspect.

Linguocultural aspect of phraseological units (Guanyongyu) in modern Chinese language

Abstract The relevance of this study is primarily due to the constant influence of extra-linguistic factors (cultural, historical, and technological) on intralinguistic ones (plan of expression, semantics) in the modern Chinese phraseological picture of the world. The purpose of this study was to identify the main linguocultural features of Guanyongyu through the study of lexico-semantic and stylistic relations. The methods used in this study included analytical-synthetic, lexico-semantic, pragmatic, linguocultural, and statistical analyses. The key features of the group of Chinese phraseological units called Guanyongyu were indicated in the study: preservation of the connection between semantic components and the integral meaning of the phraseological unit, active structural transformations, use in everyday speech, 3 (rarely 4) syllable structure, high metaphoricity, and imagery. The study identified the following groups of “habitual expressions”: with somatic components, with metaphorical components, specifically with a zoonimic or botanical basis, as well as with key mythological or literary nominations. The study also considered different groups of phraseological units by stylistic colouring: negative, neutral, and positive. The analysis of phraseological units that emerged after the COVID-19 crisis showed that they usually had negative (more rarely positive) connotations and demonstrated the dominance of collective values over individual values. The following were identified as the main linguocultural features: negative connotations, satirical ridicule, use of somatic and zoonimic components, metaphorical transfers, dominance of the collective over the individual, connection with Chinese mythology, and literary images. In a further scientific perspective, this study can be used for comparative analysis of phraseological pictures of the world of different countries and nationalities and consideration of the basis of conceptualization through the analysis of cognitive aspects embedded in phraseological units.

From Learning Ecologies to a Social Ecosystem Model for Learning and Skills

The growing relevance of socio-ecological systems (SESs) thinking reflects both the challenges of an anthropogenic poly crisis and attempts to understand the complexities of societal development in an era of globalisation. The article begins by suggesting there are two related variants of SES thinking—relationships between the natural and human worlds (Variant 1) and whole social and human system analysis using metaphorical transfer and theorisation of natural ecological principles (Variant 2). This article elaborates Variant 2 through the development a social ecosystem model (SEM) applied to post-compulsory education and skills development. An exploration of the SEM is conducted through a review of the literatures on ‘Learning Ecologies’ to assess the strengths and limitations of this human ecological approach. Perceived limitations are addressed by the development of the SEM that adds a political economy dimension to the learning ecological model, which is then applied to the field of learning and skills in the English context in support of an inclusive and place-based approach to vocational education and training (VET). The article concludes by suggesting that the SEM can be further expanded by its application to transitioning to more sustainable futures, being developed by scholars of indigenous communities and populations of the Global South, that arguably brings Variant 2 of SESs thinking closer to Variant 1.

Expressions of the Concept of the Verb ‘To Go’ in Udihe: Polysemy and Directions of Metaphorical Transfers

Expressions of the Concept of the Verb ‘To Go’ in Udihe: Polysemy and Directions of Metaphorical Transfers

KOMPÜTER TERMİNLƏRİNİN METAFORİKLƏŞMƏSİ

Metaphorization of Computer Terms Summary In the process of forming computer terms, metaphorization occurs at different levels. The productivity of a particular method of term formation is determined by the features of a computer terminological system. Numerous linguistic facts show that a model based on existing similarities, including similarities in external features and functions, plays an important role in the formation of computer terms. Key words: cognitive linguistics, metaphor, computer term, word formation, metaphorical transfer

Updating Old English Dative–Genitives: A Diachronic Construction Grammar Account

This article conducts a corpus linguistics analysis of the dative–genitive subconstruction within the broader context of Old English double object complementation. The ditransitive construction in Old English has traditionally been perceived as a network of alternating subconstructions, including dat-acc, acc-dat, acc-gen, dat-gen, and acc-acc, as the most productive variants. Recent literature has primarily focused on dat-accs and acc-dats because they are the most productive patterns across the history of English, giving also rise to the current ditransitive construction. However, the less productive case frames have received considerably less recent attention. This work, part of an ongoing investigation aimed at creating an OE dat-gen database, builds upon Visser’s list, verified and implemented by findings obtained from a search conducted in the Dictionary of Old English Web Corpus. We obtain 88 verb types and 443 tokens, incorporating 19 new verb types and 260 tokens into the database. More significantly, we offer a detailed description of the conceptual domains and verb classes associated with OE dat-gens, which display a semantics characterized by the presence or absence of actual transfer, as well as transitions from literal to metaphorical transfer, with speech verbs playing a significant role.

Metaphorical terms as a source of enrichment of the veterinary terminology system in German

The object of the study is the metaphor terms in the veterinary terminology system in modern German. The processes of metaphorization of veterinary vocabulary are considered as one of the sources of terminology formation, the analysis of veterinary metaphors in semantic, structural and etymological relations is carried out. Semantically, the terms-metaphors of the veterinary terminological system were grouped by the authors into 5 thematic groups, namely, "Animal body parts", "Diseases, their symptoms and pathologies", "Animals and living organisms", "Veterinary instruments and medicines" and "Diagnostic and therapeutic measures". Such types of metaphorical transference have been identified both by similarity of form and appearance, by similarity of functions, by similarity of impression, by similarity of location and by similarity in the way actions are presented. The main research methods determined by its purpose are semantic, structural and functional, the method of linguistic observation and description, in addition, elements of quantitative analysis are used. The material for the analysis was metaphorical terms in the field of veterinary medicine, taken from the "German-Russian veterinary Dictionary" by V. A. Beskhlebnov, as well as the veterinary lexicon in German. The main conclusions of the study include that, structurally, the most productive word-formation model among veterinary metaphor terms are determinative composites, followed in descending order by terminological phrases divided into attributive, genitive, attributive-genitive and prepositional, derivative metaphors are less productive and isolated cases of one-word metaphors have been identified. From an etymological point of view, the veterinary terminology system presents metaphor terms mainly of German origin, borrowings from other languages are found in small numbers. Metaphorical terms are firmly rooted in veterinary discourse, being one of the sources of replenishment of veterinary terminology.

Metaphor in Ossetian Literary-Critical Text

The article is dedicated to the study of metaphor as a means of forming scientific concepts and creating expressive-illustrative context. The research aims to identify types and sources of metaphorical transfers in Ossetian literary-critical texts and analyze their functioning as an important part of the language of these texts. The novelty of this study lies in the first-ever analysis of metaphor types in Ossetian literary-critical texts, verbalizing scientific concepts and creating an expressive field specific to scientific discourse. Sources of metaphors and their functions are identified. The study reveals that the main types of metaphors in the language of the texts under investigation are nominative, figurative, poetic (individual), and cognitive. Sources of metaphors include nature-mimetic and anthropocentric, acoustic, visual, and spatial groups, artifacts, symbols, etc. Metaphors are integrated into the content of the texts as essential linguistic material capable of creating a scientific context and reflecting the scientific worldview of the people. Many scientific concepts and a range of artistic-illustrative means in the analyzed texts can be considered borrowings from the Russian language, indicating a connection between the two languages in the scientific sphere of communication.

Urban Environment Design in Youth Slang Interpretation: Linguo-Axiological and Lexicographical Aspects

The linguistic and axiological potential of unofficial urbanonyms reflecting the realities of the urban environment as a design space is evaluated. The research tasks include identifying typical and non-standard objects and motifs of evaluative urbanonymic nomination, developing optimal methods for describing interregional nominative parallels and unique slang terms in the dictionary of unofficial urbanonyms. The material sources consist of dictionaries of youth slang, author’s archives of spoken language, and internet communications (2010—2024). The semantics of slang terms-urbanonyms were clarified using componential and contextual analysis methods. Parameters of their lexical description were developed using the method of lexicographical construction. Based on slang material from Pskov and St. Petersburg involving unofficial urbanonyms from Ufa, Volgograd, Novosibirsk, and other cities, the evaluative attitude of nominators towards design projects embodied in architectural structures, memorial objects, street sculpture, and monumental painting is demonstrated. Interpretations, comments, and contextual illustrations in the presented fragments of the projected dictionary reveal the specificity of the nominator’s imagery associations when implementing various ways of slang formation: playful transformations of official names, references to precedent phenomena, metonymic and metaphorical transfers and their combinations.

Метафоризация детерминативных глагольных композитов с параметрическими компонентами “hoch” и “nieder” в немецком языке

This paper deals with a study of the metaphorical meanings represented by complex verbal phrases with a definitional component of a parametric adjective. The research aims to reveal the associative and imaginative properties of parametric adjectives, on the basis of which metaphorical transfers are formed. The scientific novelty of the research lies in the fact that spatial properties of German adjectives “hoch” and “nieder” are considered for the first time through the prism of figurative perception of space. This inspires us to broaden our knowledge not only about the nominal aspects of these phrases but also how the size attributes of material objects are being restructured in the mindset of a human and how certain abstract phenomena and notions are cognized in a parametric plan. The study detected that the parametric adjectives in the analyzed composite verbs vary largely with the degree of their semantic metaphorization. The core of the imagery of these units contains the re-conceptualization (re-thinking) of spatial relations, which leads to the appearance of new properties and attributes of imagination used to nominate non-spatial sense categories.

Роль концепта «непроизводительные деньги» в производстве антропоморфных метафор англоязычного финансового дискурса

The article analyses the role of anthropomorphic monetary metaphors (AMMs) in interpreting professional English-language financial information by recipients (in our case, university students). The priority direction – English-language AMMs of unproductive capital – is but sparingly represented in modern Russian and foreign linguistic papers. The article aims to study the role of AMMs in qualifying financial concepts. The subject of the study is the functioning and implementation of figurative language units exposing the concept of the category of money in the semantics of idle funds. The object of the study is the adjective + money model, where the modifier (adjective) of unproductivity imparts a pejorative meaning to the figurative expression. The new epistemological strategy of humanitarian anthropomorphism places emphasis on the relevance of studying AMMs in the linguocultural context of English-language financial discourse due to their linguistic and cultural asymmetry in Russian and English, which reduces the level of learning intuitiveness. The research method applied here is a linguistic semiological analysis of the adjective + money model with an unproductivity modifier. The material included a corpus of periodicals, archives, financial encyclopaedias and dictionaries, as well as online media. The author draws an inference that an interweaving of the conceptual domains of idleness and finance generates a metaphorical transfer from human characteristics to monetary entities with an expressive negative connotation of cognitive models that metaphorically reflect the attitude towards idle capital. Moreover, finding their way into the lexical equipment of the professional continuum, AMMs activate students’ rhetorical thinking, simplifying concepts that are difficult for them to understand and increasing their level of learning intuitiveness. The results can be of interest to linguists and experts in cultural studies and be used in the field of discourse analysis.

Metaphorical image “star” and its varied conceptual interpretation (based on the material of the Russian and French languages)

The article is devoted to the study of the metaphorical image of a star in Russian and French language pictures of the world. The material for the study was Russian and French fiction, as well as religious texts, in order to identify its various conceptual interpretations. Using the analysis of sources from both cultures, the differences and similarities in the semantics of this metaphorical image are compared and analyzed. The scientific novelty of the study lies in the fact that during the comparative analysis it was discovered that the metaphorical image of a star in different texts is transformed through various concepts (the sphere of physiological state, religious, existential, animate spheres). Such a comparison allows us to more deeply understand the specifics of the formation of metaphorical transference in general in different cultures. The purpose of this study is to study the manifestation and behavior of the metaphorical image of a star in texts of various origins within the framework of a cultural context in the Russian and French languages. The relevance of this work lies in the fact that the study of the rich metaphorical image of a star is significant for understanding cultural, literary and ethnic aspects. This study examines in detail the metaphorical image of "star" and its conceptual interpretation in various cultural contexts. During the analysis, comparative research, corpus analysis method, continuous sampling method, and cognitive analysis are used. Particular attention is paid to the method of comparative study of metaphorical transfers of the image “star” in the Russian and French languages. The research methodology is based on the theory of conceptual metaphor and on the analysis of texts of various origins: religious texts of Orthodox akathists, canons, texts of Russian and French fiction.

Representation of a Scientific Supervisor in Internet-Memes

Introduction. The purpose article is to consider the representation of the image of a scientific supervisor based on Internet memes containing a multimodal metaphor. The relevance of the topic is due to the growing interest of the interdisciplinary scientific community in the study of the Internet meme as a social, linguistic, psychological phenomenon of interpersonal communication. The scientific novelty of the work is determined by the fact that until now there have been no attempts to study the representation of the academic community from the perspective of the theory of conceptual metaphor using the material of Internet memes. Methodology and sources. The methodological basis of the study was the works of linguists and cognitive scientists J. Lakoff, M. Johnson, R. Dawkins, V. Aldrich, Ch. Forsville, B. Dancygier and L. Vandelanotte. The concept of visual metaphor and multimodality is defined, the role of multimodal metaphor in Internet discourse is described, the features of the functioning of multimodal metaphor are revealed. The material for the study was Internet memes representing various aspects of interaction in the academic environment. To systematize the units, a continuous sampling method was used, along with pragmalinguistic, contextual and semantic analysis. Results and discussion. The Internet memes containing a multimodal metaphor that represents the image of a scientific supervisor and illustrates the relationship between graduate students and their mentors were found and analyzed in the paper. To select the material, a search containing the keywords “scientific supervisor”, “Phd student”, “advisor” was performed. The sources of the memes were the podcasts “The Struggling Scientists”, “The Meming Phd”, “High impact PhD memes”. By selecting keywords, 85 Internet memes were identified in which metaphorical transfers of the above images were found. Based on the data obtained, 4 metaphorical models that most clearly illustrate the relationships between the supervisor and the student were proposed. Conclusion. The study showed that multimodal metaphor is an integral part of modern Internet communication and is an effective way of influencing the addressee. Internet memes representing the image of a scientific supervisor were analyzed and systematized; 4 metaphorical mappings (“Scientific supervisor is a loving/caring parent”, “Scientific supervisor is a Jedi”, “Scientific supervisor is a monster/maniac”, “Scientific supervisor is a bad boss”) are highlighted and described. It was revealed that the considered Internet memes are characterized by the replacement of the verbal component with a non-verbal (graphic) one in the target domain or in the source domain. The studied metaphorical models reflect the most pressing problems of the academic community. The expressiveness of the metaphor used is achieved through the use of movie characters in the source domain or target domain. The metaphorical potential of Internet memes as semantic-semiotic units of Internet discourse is undoubtedly a promising area for further study.

ЭВФЕМИЗМЫ СО ЗНАЧЕНИЯМИ ‘УМИРАТЬ’ И ‘УБИВАТЬ’ В ТЕКСТАХ ХАКАССКИХ ГЕРОИЧЕСКИХ ЭПОСОВ «АЛТЫН-АРЫГ» И «АЙ-ХУУЧИН»

The heroic epics of the Turkic peoples in Siberia are the brightest achievement of their authentic culture. Due to the processes of urbanization, the diverging from the traditional way of life that are actively taking place in the Republic of Khakassia today, the mass bilingualism among the native speakers of the Khakas language, the switch to Russian by the Khakas younger generation, the loss of traditions in intergenerational transmission of folklore works, especially heroic epic, it is very important to study the linguistic features of Khakas folklore. The purpose of the article is to describe the features of semantic models of verbal euphemisms with meanings ‘to die’ and ‘to kill’, presented in Khakas heroic epics Altyn-Aryg and Ai-Khuuchin. Nominative units with similar meanings have not been previously studied in Khakas language and folklore studies. To achieve this goal, the method of contextual analysis, component analysis, and word formation analysis were used. Phrases with euphemistic verbal nominations, included in thematic group ‘death’ were identified with the help of the method of contextual analysis. Using the method of component analysis, the presence of seme ‘death as cessation of vital activity’ was confirmed in the verb semes. By word-formation analysis, models of the formation of euphemisms with meanings ‘to die’ (8 models) and ‘to kill’ (5 models) were established. The notion “to die” is conveyed by euphemisms formed according to such semantic models as “to lie down > to die”; “to fall down > to die”; “to cross > to die”; “to pass over > to die”; “to break off > to die”; “to transform > to die”; “to part > to die”; “to break (about a saddle pommel) > to die”. The notion “to kill” in the analyzed texts is conveyed through euphemisms formed using semantic models “to make somebody lie down > to kill”, “to make somebody cross > to kill”, “to drop > to kill”, “to tear > to kill”, “to eat > to kill”. Most of euphemisms are formed by metaphorical transfer; one semantic model is based on metonymic transfer (“to break (about a saddle pommel) > to die”). The analyzed units reflect archaism of the ideas reflected in them about death as a transition to the world of the dead, as the result of the interruption of a thread–like substance – a soul ‘tyn’, as the transformation of the external appearance (khubul- literary ‘to change', ‘to transform'), as the parting with the light world ‘akh charykh’

Русский музыкальный жаргон как предмет лингвистического изучения

e paper deals with Russian musical jargon treated as a professional sociolect of musicians. The material has been taken from the data presented in the Internet. Stylistically, musical jargon belongs to a colloquial register of the Russian language. A thematic classification of Russian musical jargon has been offered. This class of words and expressions may be subdivided into two unequal groups – specialized and non-specialized jargon units. The former comprises units reflecting the sphere of musical performance whereas the latter refer to various spheres of everyday life. Specialized musical jargon group is subdivided into three subgroups – nominations of subjects, objects and ways of musical performance. Nomination technique of the jargon described includes occasional affixal word formation, word composition, metaphorical transference, borrowings (mainly from the English language), dialectal and dated words, and onomatopoeia. Transference of musical notions into various sphere of reality is also a feature of the jargon described.

Supply Chain Resilience as Endotherm Resilience: Theorizing Through Metaphorical Transfer

This study explores the application of formal metaphorical transfer to construct theory regarding supply chain resilience, a topic of increased significance due to rising supply chain disruptions. We propose an ecological resilience perspective to illuminate the complex, dynamic nature of supply chain systems. Our research pivots around two questions: (1) Can the resilience of endotherms (warm-blooded animals) serve as a conceptually robust source phenomenon for metaphorical transfer to the study of supply chain resilience? (2) What theory-based principles can be derived from this metaphor to enhance our understanding of supply chain resilience? After rigorously establishing the conceptual equivalence between endotherm resilience and supply chain resilience, we identify a set of theory-based principles that provide insights into the evolving field of supply chain resilience. These principles help illuminate the adaptive and predictive dimensions of supply chain resilience. This paper contributes to theory building in operations management and supply chain management while suggesting new avenues for future research.

Jazykový obraz sveta v ruských a slovenských metaforických hádankách o slnku a mesiaci

The main goal of this paper is a semantic and quantitative analysis of the linguistic picture of the world of Russian and Slovak metaphorical riddles about the sun and the moon. We analysed 200 riddles (138 Russian and 62 Slovak) from folk and author's anthologies. In total, our documentary material contained 374 metaphorical transmissions (of which 241 were Russian and 133 were Slovak). Based on the analysis of the texts of the riddles, we found that the mentioned celestial bodies are interpreted in a similar way by Slovak and Russian speakers. Their metaphorical coding in both languages is most often realized on the basis of personification, through which they are perceived as people or human activities or states are attributed to them. Since the Slovak and Russian languages belong to the same group of Slavic languages, the motifs of the moon and the sun appear in their riddles, which are completely identical. In addition to personification, metaphorical coding is often realised in them using the names of animals and their parts, objects from everyday life and food. In most cases, these metaphorical transfers are based on similarity of form and colour.

Building an antifragile supply chain: A capability blueprint for resilience and post‐disruption growth

AbstractConsiderable research has focused on how supply chains can better handle disruptions. Consequently, concepts such as supply chain robustness and engineering resilience have emerged, with the dominant emphasis being that disruptions are a wholly bad thing to be avoided or resisted. However, recent discourse in the supply chain disruption management literature, such as the social–ecological interpretation of supply chain resilience, suggests that disruptions can be positioned more positively as potential catalysts for growth. Yet little is known about the capabilities required for a supply chain to grow following disruption. The emerging concept of supply chain antifragility focuses specifically on growth, providing an arrowhead for investigating what enables firms to grow following disruption. Utilizing a metaphorical transfer method, this research translates the capabilities of individuals—those who grow psychologically and emotionally after experiencing trauma—into supply chain capabilities that enhance antifragility. Five key capabilities for building antifragility in supply chains are identified: supply chain mindfulness, supply chain transformative learning, supply chain plasticity, supply chain bricolage, and supply chain collaboration. Furthermore, a hierarchy of capabilities is revealed that points to a sequential approach to capitalizing on the potential growth opportunities presented by supply chain disruptions. The findings are sense‐checked through focus groups with practitioners, informing the development of five propositions. This research contributes to theory development on handling supply chain disruptions by providing a capability blueprint for post‐disruption growth that complements the literature on social–ecological supply chain resilience. Finally, this research highlights the value of metaphorical transfer as an innovative approach for understanding contemporary supply chain phenomena and advancing novel theoretical frameworks.

Russian translations of Stefan Mallarmé's poem "Apparition"

The subject of this article is the analysis of the translation reception S. Mallarmé's poem "Apparition" (1863). Based on Mallarmé's theory of poetry and symbol, the author examines the role of metaphorical transference in the creation of symbols. The research objectives include a comparative analysis of the translations of Bryusov and Talov. The main attention is paid to the analysis of translation strategies, the adequacy of the transmission of meaning and the emotional coloring of the original, which will allow to conclude about such an approach to the translation of Mallarmé's works, which helps to most fully recreate the author's intention. In the course of the study, a biographical method was used to establish a connection between the biography of the poet and the features of the literary work created by him. Linguistic analysis allowed to analyze the linguistic and artistic features of the original and translations of the work. Comparative method allowed us to draw a conclusion about the techniques necessary for the translator to recreate the poetics of the original. The scientific novelty of the study consists in the insufficient study of the problem. In addition, the poem "Apparition" had not previously become the object of close attention of Russian researchers, despite the high aesthetic qualities of the work and the existing translation multiplicity. As a result of the research, the peculiarities of perception and transmission of metaphorical images of light in the translations of V. Bryusov and M. Talov into Russian were revealed. The main conclusion of the study of the translation reception of Mallarmé's lyrics by Russian poets will be that when translating, it is necessary not only to recreate the poetic plot, but most of all to strive to convey the mood and impressions created in the original text.

Synaesthetic metaphors in the description of fragrance properties in perfumery discourse (on the material of the modern Spanish language)

The article deals with the use of synaesthetic metaphors with an olfactory component of meaning in the perfumery discourse of the Spanish language. Synaesthetic metaphors are considered as emotional-evaluative units of linguistic coding of interrelations of polysensory perception of smells, sounds, colours, tastes, temperatures through different organs of human perception and are the result of cognitive-symbolic integration of human sensory experience. The synaesthetic metaphor is viewed as a result of synaesthesia which at the level of perception influences the inventory of the linguistic means involved by the speaker. The source of the investigated empirical material studied is the fragrance descriptions presented on the website of the El Corte Ingles online store. The metaphors studied are classified according to the establishing the synaesthetic interaction of perceptual images, considering their general and particular characteristics, which are analyzed on the basis of the cognitive mechanisms underlying them, as well as from the point of view of their pragmatic potential. By applying the method of continuous sampling, component analysis, descriptive and quantitative research methods, synaesthetic metaphors have been identified, models of synaesthetic transfers have been revealed and their productivity has been established. The most productive models of synaesthetic metaphors used in the description of fragrance in perfumery discourse are models of transfer from tactile to olfactory and from visual to olfactory modalities, transfers from gustatory and auditory modalities are less represented. Also well sufficiently represented are the models of metaphorical transfer of two or more modalities to the olfactory modality.