Metalworking Site Research Articles

Archaeology of the Landscape of Metalworking Sites in Italian Alpine Areas (Orobic Alps) between the Middle Ages and the Modern Era

The article introduces features of iron-working in the north-western Italian Alpine region (specifically, the Valtellina side of the Bergamesque or Orobic Alps) during the Middle Ages by comparing historical data and archaeological sources. This will help shed light on the organisation of the production process, starting from iron ore mining, proceeding to examine the transformation phases and culminating in the conversion of the ore into ingots or bars to produce tools for agricultural or wood-cutting activities. The article follows two distinct paths, initially presenting the main stages of iron-working in Valtellina until the second half of the eighteenth century, followed by an analysis of the mining complex of Val Venina where an extremely important metal-working site is situated. Two separate mining zones were identified, the first deep underground and the second an opencast working site. Furthermore, a series of rooms made of dry-stone walling that provided accommodation for the miners have been brought to light, as well as mineral deposits and stables for the animals required to carry out the activities described by Melchiorre Gioia in his volume “Statistica del Dipartimento dell’Adda” and indicated in the land registers of the Lombardy-Veneto regions carried out in 1815 and 1863.

Bioarchaeology of Childhood in the Yamnaya Culture, Based on Kurgan 1 at Boldyrevo-4, the Southern Urals

Archaeological and anthropological data concerning two children’s burials representing the early horizon at Boldyrevo-4 kurgan 1, Orenburg Region, excavated in 2019–2020, are presented. Early mounds were covered by a huge kurgan above another, later burial of adults. The entire complex was built by the Yamnaya people at the turn of the early and middle stages of this culture, about 3300–3100 cal BC. Remains of three children, aged about 6, from two graves, were examined. Severe pathological conditions were discovered. The child from burial 3 died of metastatic cancer. Child 1 from burial 4, represented only by a cranium, possibly suffered from scurvy. The oncological condition may have been triggered by a long stay at a smoky hearth or proximity to a metalworking site, since the Yamnaya population of the Southern Urals was engaged in an intense exploitation of copper deposits. In both children’s burials, common elements of the Yamnaya funerary rite were accompanied by certain unusual features. Vessels were similar in form and decoration, but different in manufacturing technique. The organic substances of which the mats under the skeletons were made display certain differences. These features suggest that children belonged to related but separate groups. Children buried under early mounds apparently had a special inherited social status that had an effect on the further construction of the kurgan for members of the elite.

Preliminary Results of the Yodhawewa Archaeological Research in Sri Lanka - 2018: Exploration, Excavations, Findings, and Radiocarbon Datings

This archaeological research aimed to investigate the authentic metalworking activities of the Yodhawewa area and examine contemporary socio-economic movements based on discovered material culture. The entire research work was carried out in 2018 based on a surface survey and two excavations in an area of about 201600m2 on the outskirts of Yodhawewa reservoir. The C14 chronology confirms the 1st-8th centuries activities, and in this research obtained a considerable artefacts collection related to metal extraction, copper metalwork, and crucible steel production. This research also discovered that half of a lower spherical (crucible-typed) metal furnace was used to produce crucible steel for the first time in Sri Lanka. Artefacts such as coins, BRW, RW, and some porcelain prove that the site maintained cultural relations with India and China in the c. 1st century and 8th century AD. Other artefacts of this site include ceramics, beads, faunal remains, minerals, and rocks that have been used for human needs for a considerable period. This article discusses at length the archaeological evidence that the Yodhawewa region is a metalworking site that has been active since the early historical period of Sri Lanka and a place that reflects national and international cultural relations.

Ancient Metalworking Sites in the Landscape of Kuhdasht and Presenting a Predictive Model for Central Zagros

Ancient Metalworking Sites in the Landscape of Kuhdasht and Presenting a Predictive Model for Central Zagros

Bronze Age Beginnings – a Scalar View from the Global Outskirts

This article tracks the formation of the rich and socially complex Nordic Bronze Age (NBA),c.2000–1500bc, by applying a scalar methodology and using theentrepôtand early metalworking site of Pile in Scania as its point of departure. By regarding the Bronze Age as an ancient example of globalisation, Island Melanesia at the outskirts of contemporary globalisation is first examined to provide an analogue to the Nordic entrepreneurial and maritime culture into which metallurgy was first adopted. How did this northern margin become ‘Bronze Age’, and what impact did its inclusion have? Various scales, from local to Bronze-Age-global were found to intersect in the Pile hoard, and in similar sites near and far. Byc.2000bc, metals and other commodities travelled along well-established local, regional, and super-regional networks, which even incorporated the British Isles and Únětician hubs at the Middle Elbe–Saale. Back in Scandinavia, metal and metal-related culture provided a comparative advantage when navigating local competition for influence and leadership. The transculturally global was strategically appropriated locally, using the reinvention of tradition as a principal strategy. The first metal boom caused friction and slow social change, rather than a social revolution. The real tipping point came in 1600–1500bc, when the nearly full-blown NBA emerged, through engagement with a considerably expanded world. By this time, large amounts of metal were in circulation. Seen from the non-urban north, this unprecedented expansion of their world brought new opportunities but likely also deep social tensions. Thus, the effects of adopting metallurgy permeated society and connectivity at every level, even at the outskirts of the Bronze Age world.

Optimization of portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometry for the assessment of soil total copper concentrations: application at an ancient smelting site

Copper (Cu) is the earliest anthropogenic metal pollutant, but knowledge of Cu soil concentrations at ancient metalworking sites is limited. The objective of this work was to examine the ability of portable X-ray fluorescence to quantify Cu in soils at such sites. Using a Bruker Tracer III-SD pXRF, we examine factory “scan” settings versus simple instrument parameter changes (a reduction in energy settings from 40 to 12 kV) to target analysis for Cu. We apply these to a set of uncontaminated samples (n = 18, < 92 mg Cu kg−1) from Central Thailand and compare results to standard wet chemistry analysis (aqua regia digestion and ICP-OES analysis). We then apply the optimized method to a set of highly contaminated samples (n = 86, < 14,200 mg Cu kg−1) from a known ancient smelting site. We demonstrate that simple changes to factory recommended “scan” settings can double the sensitivity of Cu determination via pXRF (“optimized limit of determination” of 19.3 mg kg−1 versus an initial value of 39.4 mg kg−1) and dramatically improve the accuracy of analysis. Changes to other results for other elements are variable and depend on concentration ranges, soil matrix effects, and pXRF response for the individual element. We demonstrate that pXRF can accurately determine Cu across a wide concentration range and identify grossly contaminated soil samples. We conclude that pXRF is a useful tool to rapidly screen and analyse samples at remote sites and can be applied to ancient metalworking sites. Simple optimization of the pXRF settings greatly improves accuracy and is essential in determining comparative background concentrations and “unaffected” areas. Application to other elements requires further element and matrix specific optimization.

Copper metallurgy in ancient Etruria (southern Tuscany, Italy) at the Bronze-Iron Age transition: a lead isotope provenance study

The Etruscan site of Populonia-Baratti (Southern Tuscany, Italy) became in the first millennium BCE one of the most important iron metalworking sites in the Mediterranean region thanks to the exploitation of nearby Elba Island iron ores. Recent studies, however, have demonstrated that, before iron, copper was smelted therein (9th–8th century BCE). The ancient Hellenistic text De mirabilibus auscultationibus by Pseudo-Aristotle states that the ancient inhabitants of Elba Island firstly exploited copper and that, later in, iron was won from the same mines by the inhabitants of Populonia. However, copper occurrences are extremely scanty on the island, while mainland southern Tuscany hosts a number of copper-rich deposits which could have been profitably exploited since Eneolithic. In order to investigate if, and to what extent, copper mining and smelting/working was practiced in this area in Final Bronze Age (FBA) to Early Iron Age (EIA), we have thus compared the lead isotope composition of copper slags found in the Populonia-Baratti area and dated to the 9th–8th century BCE with those of copper-rich ore deposits of southern Tuscany and Elba Island. In addition, few copper-based items from to FBA-EIA hoards of Elba Island have been investigated as well. All copper slag from Baratti-Populonia have lead isotope composition fully comprised within the nearby Campiglia Marittima district, but the ophiolitic copper (either form Tuscan mainland or the neighboring island of Elba) was never worked in this site. Differently, all items from the island of Elba do not show clear genetic relationship neither with Elban nor with the Tuscan mainland copper ores but display a “foreign” Pb signature, suggesting that, even before iron exploitation started, the island of Elba - one of the main crossroads of the Mediterranean Sea - was probably involved in metal trading (rather than metal working) with other regions.

Application of high‐resolution Mobile Metal Ion (MMI) soil geochemistry to archaeological investigations: An example from a Roman metal working site, Somerset, United Kingdom

AbstractAn innovative application of Mobile Metal Ion (MMI) partial extraction soil geochemistry is used to identify below‐surface archaeological features, using a previously incompletely surveyed Roman metal‐working site at St. Algar's Farm, Somerset, as a case study. Soil samples were taken and analyzed for 53 elements by the MMI geochemical method. Lead, Tl, Ba, and Zn were found in very high concentrations and the sensitivity of the technique also enabled Ag, Au, and Sn to be measured in anomalous concentrations. Elemental maps accurately outlined known metal working areas. Principal component analysis and bivariate correlations identified two suites of associated elements: Pb, Ba, Tl, Ag, Au, Cu, Sb, the base and noble metal group (BNM), and Fe, Ti, Nb, Mn, Co, Cu, P, Li, Rb, Sc, Cs, K, Ga, P, Zr, Th, and Sn, the pegmatite (PEG) group. These were used to form indices that delineate the metal working area and areas possibly related to the processing of pegmatite containing Sn. The high‐sensitivity MMI data were compared with strong acid digest results from a limited number of the MMI samples; the MMI data showed better geochemical contrast than the strong acid results. Multielement statistical similarity comparisons with off‐site samples suggest likely sources for the Pb and Sn used at the St. Algar's site. The increased sensitivity of MMI soil analysis combined with the multielement capacity allows a more detailed archaeological interpretation.

Non-destructive μXRF analysis of glass and metal objects from sites in the Libyan pre-desert and Fazzan

AbstractThis paper reports on the non-destructive analysis of 42 samples of copper alloy and glass from sites in Libya, using semi-quantitative μXRF, carried out as part of the work of the Trans-Sahara Project funded by the European Research Council. These are among the first chemical analyses to be performed on metals and glasses of any period found in Libya, and the results – though preliminary – raise some interesting possibilities. In particular, we discuss some possible indications with regard to the practice of recycling glasses, as evidenced through heterogeneous, malformed glass beads with variable quantities of lead. A glass mirror from Ghirza was also found to be backed in lead, and was probably the result of a glass-making technique still practised in recent times in India. The metal analysis has revealed evidence of a pre-Islamic trade in brass in the northern Sahara, as well as showing the presence of objects made from the mixing of different types of scrap metal, a process probably taking place at the Garamantian metalworking site of Saniat Jibril among other locations. The importance of further analysis of available Libyan and other North African metal artefacts and glasses for the contextualisation and extension of these findings is emphasised.

The Role of Storeroom Collections in the Identification of Battle Debris

In connection with the work to find the Fulford battlesite, it is recognised that the techniques required to find the site of a conflict are different from those employed to confirm and research a battlesite. Access to museum storeroom collections allowed the surface fragments from the investigation to be interpreted and also revealed that iron was in all probability gathered together and reprocessed immediately after the battle. Thus, hearth debris is a potential pointer to locate other sites because the metal-working sites at Fulford coincided with the area of action of the battle suggested by other, independent avenues of research.

Later prehistoric settlement and metalworking site at Seafield West, near Inverness, Highland

Construction in 1996 at a major retail development site close to Inverness, Highland (NGR: NH 694 445) resulted in the destruction of two known cropmark sites. One set of cropmarks was found to be associated with a Bronze Age log-boat burial site and the results of the ensuing excavation are published elsewhere (Cressey &amp; Sheridan 2003). The excavation of a second area of cropmarks forms the subject of this publication. The archaeological remains consisted of a series of negative features, post-holes and annular ditches which form parts of at least nine separate structures of a later prehistoric unenclosed settlement. A mould fragment indicated Late Bronze Age sword production in the vicinity. A palisaded enclosure produced a copper-alloy brooch that is a rare find for the region. Evidence of copper-alloy objects and metalworking from a smelting hearth and slags show that the occupants were of some status. Some of the structural and artefactual evidence compellingly points to an in situ ironworking workshop. A large cache of smithing charcoal found in association with a smelting hearth was radiocarbon dated to 180BC–AD70 and represents one of the few dated in situ Iron Age ironworking episodes in Scotland.

A Later Prehistoric Settlement and Metalworking Site at Seafield West, near Inverness, Highland

Construction in 1996 at a major retail development site close to Inverness, Highland resulted in the destruction of two known cropmark sites. One set of cropmarks was found to be associated with a Bronze Age log-boat burial site and the results of the ensuing excavation are published elsewhere (Cressey &amp; Sheridan 2003). The excavation of a second area of cropmarks forms the subject of this publication. The archaeological remains consisted of a series of negative features, post-holes and annular ditches which form parts of at least nine separate structures of a later prehistoric unenclosed settlement. A mould fragment indicated Late Bronze Age sword production in the vicinity. A palisaded enclosure produced a copper-alloy brooch that is a rare find for the region. Evidence of copper-alloy objects and metalworking from a smelting hearth and slags show that the occupants were of some status. Some of the structural and artefactual evidence compellingly points to an in situ ironworking workshop. A large cache of smithing charcoal found in association with a smelting hearth was radiocarbon dated to 180BC-AD70 and represents one of the few dated in situ Iron Age ironworking episodes in Scotland.

Excavation of an Iron Age, Early Historic and medieval settlement and metalworking site at Eilean Olabhat, North Uist

The promontory site of Eilean Olabhat, North Uist was excavated between 1986 and 1990 as part ofthe Loch Olabhat Research Project. It was shown to be a complex enclosed settlement and industrialsite with several distinct episodes of occupation. The earliest remains comprise a small Iron Agebuilding dating to the middle centuries of the first millennium BC, which was modified on severaloccasions prior to its abandonment. Much later, the Early Historic remains comprise a smallcellular building, latterly used as a small workshop within which fine bronze and silverwork wasproduced in the fifth to seventh centuries AD. Evidence of this activity is represented by quantitiesof mould and crucible fragments as well as tuyère and other industrial waste products. The sitesubsequently fell into decay for a second time prior to its medieval reoccupation probably in the14th to 16th centuries AD.&#x0D; Eilean Olabhat has produced a well-stratified, though discontinuous, structural and artefactualsequence from the mid-first millennium BC to the later second millennium AD, and has importantimplications for ceramic development in the Western Isles over that period, as well as providingsignificant evidence for the nature and social context of Early Historic metalworking.

Isotopic composition of sulfate as a tracer of natural and anthropogenic influences on groundwater geochemistry in an urban sandstone aquifer, Birmingham, UK

Abstract Development and management of urban groundwater resources is limited in practice by a lack of knowledge of the nature, distribution and sources of groundwater contamination in an urban aquifer that may have had complex land use and abstraction history. Sulfate is associated with many of the solute sources to urban groundwater and in this study the use of dual isotope (δ18O and δ34S) “fingerprinting” of SO 4 2 - in groundwater to assess the contribution of different sources to urban groundwater is investigated. Groundwater (70 locations) and surface water samples from the city of Birmingham on the Triassic Sherwood sandstone aquifer have been analyzed for inorganic chemical and SO 4 2 - isotopic composition. Isotopic compositions of SO 4 2 - associated with various solute sources have also been determined. Sulfate derived from pyrite oxidation during recharge through Quaternary Drift deposits is characteristically depleted in 18O and 34S compared to other sources and is ubiquitous in unconfined zone groundwater, though the contribution from this source has increased markedly following draw down induced by abstraction from the aquifer. In unpolluted groundwaters other SO 4 2 - sources are dissolution of evaporite minerals (confined zone) and rainfall (unconfined zone). Unfortunately, SO 4 2 - isotopic composition cannot distinguish between made-ground (i.e. artificial man-made ground, usually demolition waste) and sewage sources of SO 4 2 - , which constitute the major contributions to SO 4 2 - in polluted urban groundwater at most sites. Contributions of SO 4 2 - from spilt industrial acids do have a distinctive isotopic composition seen at many metal-working and former metal-working sites. Estimates of solute contributions derived from these sources derived in this way provide a useful check on the “calibration” of aquifer and pollutant flux recharge models for urban groundwater.

Identification of ore extraction and metal working in ancient times: a case study of Sagalassos (SW Turkey)

The extensive territory of the ancient (Hellenistic to Byzantine) city of Sagalassos (SW Turkey) offered a rich variety in natural mineral resources. The frequent occurrence of iron slag in the excavations at the site proved the local working of metal. A geochemical prospection campaign was done in the territory of the ancient city in order to identify or discard the city and its territory as a self-sustaining metallurgical centre. Secondly, the geochemical impact of ancient metallurgy was investigated. Geochemical anomalies identified in stream sediments are explained by the presence of mineralised deposits and ancient metal working. Mg, Cr, Co and Ni anomalies point to chromite and chrysotile-magnetite deposits related to the basic rocks of the Lycian nappes in the area. Fe, V and Ti anomalies indicate the presence of iron mineralisations, which have been worked for iron production in ancient times. Finally, the association of P, Cu, Pb, Mn, As and Ag anomalies are an indicator of human activity at archaeological sites. Within the framework of this geochemical prospection, a metal working site apart from the city of Sagalassos was identified. Here, ore was both extracted and processed to workable iron.

Metal Working in the Northern Lowveld, South Africa A.D. 1000–1890

The Iron Age archaeology of the northern Lowveld of South Africa is notable for the abundance of mining, metal working, and salt production sites recorded in the region. We report the results of scientific studies of the metallurgical remains recovered from 1965 to 1978 by Nikolaas J. van der Merwe, David Killick, and colleagues in various campaigns of survey and excavation in the Phalaborwa region, a major center of precolonial metallurgy. Both iron and copper ores occur in a carbonatite complex at Phalaborwa and were smelted in low-shaft furnaces of two different designs. Two radiocarbon dates of ca. 1000 b.p. are available for the mines themselves, which have now been completely destroyed. All other radiocarbon dates for the archaeological sequence at Phalaborwa fall in two groups, the first from the 10th to 13th centuries A.D., the second from the 17th through the 20th centuries A.D. Both iron and copper were smelted in both periods; tin-bronze and brass appeared towards the end of the earlier period.

Work-related problems in metal handling tasks in Bangladesh: obstacles to the development of safety and health measures

Many manual labourers in Bangladesh are involved with metal-handling tasks that are both physically demanding and stressful. The metal workers have been significantly exposed to prolonged hammering and cutting activities in excessive noise and with awkward body postures. Moreover, stressors from heat and humidity, welding fumes and metal dusts often cause excess strain, and are reflected in a deterioration of their physical work performance. Indeed, physical work is the economic source in many developing countries for the support of worker's family and relatives. Unfortunately, there are many obstacles and a lack of efficient steps to restore ergonomics principles as well as occupational safety and health measures. Thus, in this paper, tasks and jobs are classified and analysed from the results of an ergonomics survey from 343 subjects (293 adults men, age 20–40 years; 17 women, 19–32 years) and 33 child workers (14–17 years). Four types of metal working sites from two districts in Bangladesh were surveyed using questionnaires and interviews. The results showed that a significant number of workers experienced a high prevalence of work-related problems. The main aim was to identify stressful tasks that are related to musculoskeletal and psychosocial symptoms. Moreover, the findings reveal the possibility of why ergonomics measures are unsuccessful; and if they could have an immediate effect on the safety and health of metal workers in Bangladesh.

Aspects of metallurgical activity in Liguria (Italy) in the middle and late bronze age

Prehistoric metal findings from Liguria are numerous, however, even though there were many metalliferous mines, the metal-working sites have not yet been ascertained.

Source, type and extent of inorganic contamination within the Birmingham urban aquifer system, UK

A survey of the inorganic quality of the groundwater of the Birmingham Triassic sandstone aquifer was carried out by sampling seventy 80–150 m deep industrial abstraction boreholes, 11 shallow monitoring piezometers, two submerged tunnels and two flooded industrial basements, and a set of trial pits. Borehole logging and historical data were also obtained. Given that the city of Birmingham is as long established as most industrial conurbations in the world, the degree of groundwater inorganic contamination as indicated by abstraction well samples is not excessive. Out of the 28 determinands measured, only NO − 3 and Ba 2+ consistently approach and exceed their European Community Maximum Admissible Concentrations standards for drinking water and the barium is being supplied by the aquifer rather than having an anthropogenic source. However, a few abstraction boreholes have highly contaminated groundwaters, with for example milligram per litre levels of heavy metals. In addition, there is a correlation between land use and chemistry, with the highest salinity, sulphate, chloride, sodium, boron, and total heavy metal concentrations being associated with metal-working sites. High concentrations of heavy metals (and NH + 4 are unexpected in the near-neutral pH Triassic sandstone groundwaters given the high sorption capacity of the sandstone: it is concluded that one reason for the occasionally high concentrations observed is the presence of very locialized high concentration recharge. Data from shallow piezometers confirm the considerable degree of heterogeneity in groundwater quality on a small scale — the pollution is mainly from point sources. Sampling from piezometers, tunnels, and basements demonstrates that the groundwater concentrations at shallow depths are often much higher than the pumped water analyses suggest. However, nitrate groundwaters appear to vary much less with depth than other species, reflecting a longer history of supply and a wider range of sources. Geophysical logging and sampling of well columns, and other observations indicate that the intermittent pumping of abstraction wells results in the pumped water quality being biased towards the shallower, high concentrations groundwaters rather than being a uniform mixture from all screened depths. Historical data show various trends, and these can be related to local hydrogeology, land use, and abstraction history. Comparisons of organic and inorganic pollution show that distributions are very different, reflecting differences in physical transport processes, chemical interactions, and histories of chemical usage.

The environmental impact of prehistoric mining at Copa Hill, Cwmystwyth, Wales

A recent upsurge of interest in early mining and metal working sites in Europe led to experimental quantification of their apparently prodigious demand for fuelwood. However, the real impact of prehistoric mining on woodland remained unknown. Excavation of a prehistoric copper mine at Copa Hill, Cwmystwyth, from 1986-91, afforded an opportunity for linked palaeoenvironmental investigations. Pollen analytical methods were applied in a pilot study of blanket peat deposits adjacent to the prehistoric mine at Copa Hill. Results provide circumstantial evidence linking prehistoric human activity at the mine in the Early Bronze Age both to selective woodland removal and to upland peat initiation close to the site. Woodland clearances seem to have been relatively small-scale during the inferred period of mining, with limited overall impact, suggesting either protracted small-scale mining operations, or active management of woodland resources. Future directions for study of the impact of early mining on woodland are suggested.