Zooplankton Research Articles

Depth-dependent bacterial colonization on model chitin particles in the open ocean

Abstract Sinking particles transport carbon from the surface to the deep ocean. Microbial colonization and remineralization is an important ecosystem service constraining the biogeochemistry by recycling and redistributing nutrients from the surface to the deep ocean. Fragmentation of particles by zooplankton and the resulting colonization by microorganisms before ingestion, known as ‘microbial gardening’, allows for trophic upgrading and increased microbial biomass for detritivorous zooplankton. Using model chitin particles incubated with seawater collected from surface, meso- and bathypelagic depths in the North-East Atlantic Ocean, we determined particle-attaching bacterial communities to identify general and depth-specific candidates of particle colonisation. Comparison of particle-attached communities at the amplicon sequence variant (ASV) level showed bacteria found on surface particles were also colonisers in the bathypelagic, in line with sinking particles promoting vertical connectivity. Bathypelagic particle-attached communities were most diverse. We propose some particle colonisers attach in the surface and sink out with the particle, whilst other colonisers are depth specific. This suggests that candidates for particle colonisation differ with depth, which may be important when considering the implications for delivery of ecosystem services including carbon cycling and the role they play for zooplankton grazers.

Sedimentary organic matter signature hints at the phytoplankton-driven biological carbon pump in the central Arabian Sea

Abstract. The central Arabian Sea, a unique tropical basin, is profoundly impacted by monsoon wind reversal affecting its surface circulation and biogeochemistry. Phytoplankton blooms associated with high biological productivity and particle flux occur in the northern part of the central Arabian Sea due to summer-monsoon-induced open-ocean upwelling and winter convection. The core oxygen minimum zone (OMZ) at intermediate water depths is another important feature of the northern central Arabian Sea and fades southward. In this study, we attempt to interlink how these factors collectively impact phytodetrital export to the sediment. Short sediment core-top (1 cm) samples representing the recent particle flux signatures were analysed from five locations (21 to 11° N; 64° E) in the central Arabian Sea. Previously, we used core-top (0–0.5 cm) samples and observed a trend between diatom frustule abundance and diversity with bulk sedimentary parameters indicating a spatial variability in phytodetrital export to the sediment. To verify this observation further, lipid biomarkers of key phytoplankton groups and a sea surface temperature (SST) proxy have been analysed in addition to diatom frustules. The C37 alkenone-based SST proxy indicated cooler SST (27.6 ± 0.25 °C) in the north (21–15° N) mostly due to upwelling (summer) and convective mixing (winter). Warmer SSTs (+0.4 °C) are measured in the south, which usually remains nutrient-poor. This trend was consistent with satellite-derived average SST values (2017–2020). Lipid biomarker analysis suggests that dinoflagellates were likely to be the highest contributor, as indicated by dinosterol and its degradative product dinostanol, followed by brassicasterol and C37 alkenone, likely representing diatoms and coccolithophores, respectively. The north, which largely experiences periodic phytoplankton blooms and is influenced by the thick OMZ, revealed the highest contents of organic matter, diatom frustules (diversity and abundance), dominated by large, thickly silicified cells (e.g. Coscinodiscus and Rhizosolenia) and phytoplankton lipid biomarkers, as well as lower contents of zooplankton biomarkers (cholesterol and cholestanol). In contrast, relatively smaller chain-forming centric (e.g. Thalassiosira) and pennate (e.g. Pseudo-nitzschia, Nitzschia, Thalassionema) diatom frustules along with lower phytoplankton lipid biomarker contents were found in the south, where zooplankton biomarkers and silicious radiolarians were more abundant. The possible impacts of the OMZ on particle flux related to the phytoplankton community, including zooplankton grazing and other factors, have been discussed.

Seasonal refuge patterns of phytoplankton trigger irregular bloom events in a contaminated environment

Several experimental evidences and field data documented that zooplankton may alter its behavioral response in the presence of toxic phytoplankton, reducing its consumption to the point of starvation. This paper is devoted to the mathematical study of such interactions of toxic phytoplankton with grazer zooplankton. The non-toxic phytoplankton is assumed to adopt a density-dependent refuge strategy to avoid over-predation by zooplankton. Both groups of phytoplankton are assumed to suffer direct harm from anthropogenic toxicants, while zooplankton is affected indirectly by ingesting contaminated phytoplankton. We calibrate the proposed model with the field data from Talsari and Digha Mohana, India, and estimate some crucial model parameters consistent with the behavior of the observed data. Our results demonstrate that zooplankton grazing on toxic phytoplankton plays a key role in the emergence or mitigation of plankton blooms. We also highlight the system’s potential to exhibit multiple stable configurations under the same ecological conditions. The plankton system experiences significant regime shifts, which are explored through various bifurcation scenarios, such as transcritical and saddle-node bifurcations. These shifts are influenced by changes in refuge capacity, species growth rates, and environmental carrying capacity. Furthermore, we incorporate environmental variations due to seasonal periodic or almost periodic changes, allowing the refuge parameter to be time-dependent. We observe that the forced system exhibits double periodic solutions. Moreover, stronger seasonal variations in the refuge pattern lead to irregular chaotic blooms. In conclusion, the results offer valuable insights into the sustainability of biodiversity, potentially shedding light on the origin of diverse plankton bloom phenomena.

A temperature tipping point in hypoxic zone size

AbstractTemperature increases will have ubiquitous effects on aquatic food webs, from microbes to consumers, and affect the quality and quantity of carbon flows within and between water layers. A decline in the biological pump moving carbon from surface to lower layers is anticipated. We reviewed 37 years of data on hypoxic zone size and water quality in the northern Gulf of Mexico to determine if air and bottom water temperature increases (0.5°C decade−1) are significantly related to variations in its areal size. There was no significant decline in important river water quality in the 24 years since the national Hypoxia Action Plan was developed to reduce its size. Changes in the ratio of km2 hypoxia per 1000 mt nitrate loading from the Mississippi River from 2000 to 2023 reveals a tipping point in the hypoxic zone size that is driven by ocean warming. Biological factors varying with temperature such as ectotherm growth rates, zooplankton grazing, cell sinking rates, and diatom sequestration of Si or N are apparently more important influences on recent hypoxic zone size than variations in physical factors. This tipping point may be common to similarly warmed and eutrophic coastal waters where warming will likely result in diminished oxygen deficiency (< 2 mgO2 L−1). Hypoxia and food web models assuming a stationary equipoise of nutrient loadings, ratios and food webs will be deficient as coastal waters warm further, coastal storm and hurricane frequency increase and land uses in the watershed are altered with climate change.

Grazer‐induced toxin production is energetically costly and significantly reduces growth of cylindrospermopsin‐producing cyanobacteria

AbstractToxins have been proposed as a defense mechanism for phytoplankton against zooplankton grazing. However, the associated costs are not understood. Here, we aim to reveal the costs in terms of both physiological and molecular responses in the cylindrospermopsin (CYN)‐producing cyanobacterium Raphidiopsis raciborskii. Exposure of R. raciborskii to Daphnia magna resulted in a significant increase in its CYN cell quota which was grazer cell density‐dependent, indicating an inducible effect on CYN production. A negative and significant relationship between cellular growth rate and CYN production suggested a growth‐defense trade‐off, highlighting the costly nature of toxin production. Despite strong transcriptional responses (121 differentially expressed genes) in R. raciborskii under grazing pressure, the CYN gene cluster remained largely unaffected, implying post‐transcriptional regulation of CYN biosynthesis. Significant variation was observed in transcripts for phosphorus metabolism and photosynthesis‐related genes, and evidenced that energy (ATP) metabolic processes were stimulated. This study is the first to demonstrate the high energy requirements for CYN production and provide insight into the molecular basis underlying the costs of toxin production.

Rapid physiological integration of fused ctenophores

The mechanisms by which organisms recognize the 'self' from the 'non-self' remain poorly understood. Moreover, the capability of transplanted tissue to functionally integrate is unclear in many organisms. Here, we report that two injured Mnemiopsis leidyi individuals, a species of planktonic animals known as comb jellies or ctenophores, are capable of rapidly fusing into a single entity in which some physiological functions are integrated. Our results highlight two interesting phenomena. First, ctenophores may lack an allorecognition mechanism that prevents fusion events between conspecifics. Second, fused individuals rapidly integrate and share physiological functions and neurobehavioral outputs. Ctenophores are among the earliest-branching animal groups of extant metazoans1 and possess a unique nervous system with enigmatic homology to other phyla2. Our observations warrant further research into understanding the evolution of self-nonself recognition systems and the functional integration of neuronal structures in ctenophores.

Cross-frontal variability of phytoplankton productivity in the Indian sector of the Southern Ocean during austral summer of 2010–2018

Oceanic phytoplankton productivity, which regulates atmospheric CO2, is crucial for unraveling the complexities of the global carbon cycle. Despite its substantial contribution to the global carbon budget and its critical role in anthropogenic carbon sink, the Southern Ocean (SO) remains under-sampled due to logistical challenges. The present study attempts to elucidate the variability of water column primary production (PP) in the Indian Sector of the Southern Ocean (ISSO) by examining associated physicochemical parameters and physiological conditions of phytoplankton that drive this variability. The study revealed the nutrient limitation in the region north of the Subantarctic Front (SAF) and light limitation coupled with intense zooplankton grazing in the region south of the SAF. Coastal waters exhibit higher PP, characterized by the prevalence of large phytoplankton. The SAF displayed maximum productivity among the fronts, while the Polar Front 2 (PF-2) recorded the lowest. The water column PP varies from 27.01 to 960.69 mg C m−2 d−1 in the frontal region, while the coastal waters recorded productivity up to 1083.56 mg C m−2 d−1. Phytoplankton in the frontal regions indicated a stable surface abundance, except north of the Subtropical Front (STF), where the oligotrophic condition fosters the growth of picoplankton, subjected to high grazing by microzooplankton. Conversely, in the colder coastal waters, the phytoplankton experienced physiological acclimation. Model-based estimates of PP highlighted the efficacy of the Carbon-based Production Model (CbPM) in estimating net PP (NPP) in these polar waters, surpassing the Vertically Generalized Production Model (VGPM) and Eppley-VGPM. Notably, all model-based PP estimates significantly improved with in situ chlorophyll as input instead of satellite-retrieved chlorophyll. While the models performed well in the coastal water, their performance was suboptimal in the frontal region. This study advances our understanding of the intricate dynamics of phytoplankton productivity in the SO, offering valuable insights for future research endeavors.

Synthesis of In Situ Marine Calcium Carbonate Dissolution Kinetic Measurements in the Water Column

AbstractCalcium carbonate (CaCO3) dissolution is an integral part of the ocean's carbon cycle. However, laboratory measurements and ocean alkalinity budgets disagree on the rate and loci of dissolution. In situ dissolution studies can help to bridge this gap, but so far published studies have not been utilized as a whole because they have not previously been compiled into one data set and lack carbonate system data to compare between studies. Here, we compile all published measurements of CaCO3 dissolution rates in the water column (11 studies, 752 data points). Combining World Ocean Atlas data (temperature, salinity) with the neural network CANYON‐B (carbonate system variables), we estimate seawater saturation state (Ω) for each rate measurement. We find that dissolution rates at the same Ω vary by 2 orders of magnitude. Using a machine learning approach, we show that while Ω is the main driver of dissolution rate, most variability can be attributed to differences in experimental design, above all bias due to (diffusive) transport and the synthetic or biogenic nature of CaCO3. The compiled data set supports previous findings of a change in the mechanism driving dissolution at Ωcrit = 0.8 that separates two distinct dissolution regimes: rslow = 0.29 · (1 − Ω)0.68(±0.16) mass% day−1 and rfast = 2.95 · (1 − Ω)2.2(±0.2) mass% day−1. Above the saturation horizon, one study shows significant dissolution that cannot solely be explained by established theories such as zooplankton grazing and organic matter degradation. This suggests that other, non‐biological factors may play a role in shallow dissolution.

Intensified effect of nitrogen forms on dominant phytoplankton species succession by climate change

Nutrient proportion, light intensity, and temperature affect the succession of dominant phytoplankton species. Despite these insights, this transformation mechanism in highly turbid lakes remains a research gap, especially in response to climate change. To fill this gap, we investigated the mechanism by which multi-environmental factors influence the succession of dominant phytoplankton species in Lake Chagan. This investigation deployed the structural equation model (SEM) and the hydrodynamic-water quality-water ecology mechanism model. Results demonstrated that the dominant phytoplankton species in Lake Chagan transformed from diatom to cyanobacteria during 2012 and 2022. Notably, Microcystis was detected in 2022. SEM revealed the primary environment variables for this succession, including water temperature (Tw), nutrients (total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), and ammonia nitrogen (NH4N)), and total suspended solids (TSS). Moreover, this event was not the consequence of zooplankton grazing. An integrated hydrodynamic-water quality-bloom mechanism model was built to explore the mechanism driving phytoplankton succession and its response to climate change. Nutrients determined the phytoplankton biomass and dominant species succession based on various proportions. High NH4N:NO3N ratios favored cyanobacteria and inhibited diatom under high TSS. Additionally, the biomass proportions of diatom (30.77 % vs. 22.28 %) and green (30.56 % vs. 23.30 %) decreased dramatically. In contrast, cyanobacteria abundance remarkably increased (35.78 % to 51.71 %) with the increasing NH4-N:NO3-N ratios. In addition, the proportion of non-nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria was higher than that of the nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria counterparts when TN:TP≥20 and NH4N:NO3N ≥ 10. Light-limitation phenotypes also experienced an increase with the rising NH4N:NO3N ratios. Notably, the cyanobacterial biomass reached 3–6 times that in the baseline scenario when the air temperature escalated by 3.0 °C until 2061 under the SSP585 scenario. We highlighted the effect of nitrogen forms on the succession of dominant phytoplankton species. Climate warming will increase nitrogen proportion, providing an insightful reference for controlling cyanobacterial blooms.

How do additions of submerged macrophytes, large-bodied cladocerans and nutrients impact tropical plankton communities? A mesocosm experiment

AbstractWe investigated the individual and combined impacts of manipulation of submerged macrophytes, large-bodied cladocerans, and nutrients on plankton communities in a tropical hypereutrophic shallow reservoir. We tested how the addition of the macrophyte Ceratophyllum demersum, the cladoceran Sarsilatona serricauda, and nutrients affected phytoplankton and zooplankton diversity, composition, and structure using mesocosms and a factorial design (3 × 3) with eight treatments. During the experiment, the reservoir experienced an intense bloom of algae (207 mg l−1 of biomass), mainly composed of cyanobacteria (> 98%). The submerged macrophytes were found to significantly reduce the biomass of cyanobacteria (by 85%), diatoms (80%), and green algae (78%), while the addition of zooplankton and nutrients led to a 96% reduction for diatoms. While both submerged macrophytes and the added cladocerans impacted the native zooplankton community, the macrophytes exerted stronger effects on phytoplankton and zooplankton diversity, composition, and structure. Intriguingly, nutrient addition did not alter the main effects of macrophytes and large cladocerans. Our findings reveal the positive potential of introducing submerged macrophytes in tropical shallow lakes, even at a low to moderate percentage of the volume inhabited, to control toxic cyanobacterial blooms. Under our experimental conditions, the method was effective even without extra zooplankton grazing and at increased nutrient input.

Use of zooplankton prey in aquaculture production of Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus Linnaeus, 1758) in Daloa, Côte D'Ivoire

The aim of the study carried out at the Ouattara N'golo fish farm in Daloa was to contribute to the improvement of fish production in Côte d'Ivoire through the production of Nile tilapia fed on zooplankton prey. Larvae of the Brazilian strain of Oreochromis niloticus, with an initial weight of 0.03 ± 0.01 g and an initial total length of 1.7 ± 0.1 cm, were distributed in triplicate in three plastic tanks. Fish in BAC 1 were fed only low-grade rice flour (LSRF), while those in BAC 2 were fed LSRF and live zooplankton (LSRF + ZOO). Fish in BAC 3 were fed mainly live zooplankton (ZOO). The main results show that fish fed with low-grade rice flour and live zooplankton (FBR + ZOO), and those fed mainly with live zooplankton (ZOO) recorded the highest survival rates (95.25 ± 0.0025% and 97.5 ± 0.005% respectively). Furthermore, weight and length growth at the end of the experiment were greater in fish fed with low-grade rice flour and live zooplankton (2.66 ± 0.01 g and 6.8 ± 0.1 cm) than in those fed with low-grade rice flour only (2.46 ± 0.02 and 5.8 ± 0.1 cm) and those fed mainly with live zooplankton (1.93 ± 0.03 and 5.5 ± 0.1 cm). The involvement of zooplankton prey in the diet of Nile tilapia larvae confers better survival and growth performance on these small fish, while at the same time reducing the expense of producing them.

Environmental Variables Outpace Biotic Interactions in Shaping a Phytoplankton Community

We evaluated the main environmental factors (abiotic and biotic) driving the phytoplankton community in a shallow tropical reservoir located in an environmentally protected area. Phytoplankton samples were collected from the surface and bottom of the reservoir. The phytoplankton samples were later identified at the species level, and the species were further assigned to morphology-based functional groups (MBFGs). Zooplankton were sampled through vertical haul, communities were identified to species level, and functional diversity was estimated based on community-weighted means (CWM). Phytoplankton MBFGs IV, V, and VI contributed the most to the biomass under high light availability coupled with low nutrient availability. Potentially toxic cyanobacteria from MBFG III were observed during thermal stratification. Hydraulic mixing plays a crucial role in reducing the phytoplankton biomass during the warmer/rainy season. Cyclopoid copepods accounted for more than 83% of the zooplankton biomass. There was a weak but significant effect of zooplankton functional diversity on phytoplankton functional diversity, mainly because of the dominance of small zooplankton. Altogether, our findings suggest that environmental filtering plays a greater role than zooplankton grazing in phytoplankton community structure in this shallow tropical reservoir.

Particulate mercury export in the Central Pacific Ocean using 234Th[sbnd]238U disequilibria

Mercury (Hg) is a potent neurotoxin that enters the food web and may contaminate commercial, recreational, subsistence, and ceremonial fish stocks. Understanding the pathways by which this contamination occurs in marine systems is thus an essential component of minimizing consumer health risk. Our knowledge of the biogeochemical cycling of mercury, however, is relatively limited. Temporal changes in sinking particulate mercury (PHg) fluxes throughout the upper 400 m were examined at Station ALOHA (22°N, 158°W) in the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre (NPSG) and spatially along a north-south transect to the Equator (17.5°N to 5°N x 155°W) using a combination of in situ pumps and Uranium-238/Thorium-234 disequilibria as a tracer of particle export. Our results indicate that Station ALOHA is characterized by seasonally variable export fluxes of PHg, with highest fluxes occurring in May (175 m, 346 pmol m−2 day−1), with the advent of summer zooplankton growth, and in September (400 m, 356 pmol m−2 day−1), coinciding with a diazotroph mediated summer export pulse. PHg fluxes in May and September were higher than those previously measured in the equatorial Pacific at 150 m and continued to be high (> 100 pmol Hg m−2 d−1) down to 400 m, thereby providing a significant source of Hg to the mesopelagic food web. In contrast to Station ALOHA, at 8 and 5°N, PHg fluxes attenuated rapidly with depth, and fluxes were generally lower, with a maximum flux of 86 pmol m−2 d−1 (5°N). Depth profiles at 8 and 5°N were significantly different from one another, with PHg fluxes higher throughout the water column at 5°N and characterized by a subsurface peak in Hg flux 3 times higher than at 8°N (86 vs. 29 pmol Hg m−2 d−1). Monomethylmercury (MeHg) fluxes (max = 1.09 ± 0.57 pmol m−2 d−1) and concentrations (max = 0.14 fmol L−1) comprised only a small percentage of the total PHg pool. These results suggest that PHg cycling significantly differed between the NPSG and near the equator at least during an El Niño year. At Station ALOHA, microbial reworking of small particles below the deep chlorophyll maximum coupled with changes in zooplankton grazing drive seasonal export variability. In contrast near the equator, low fluxes associated with low biological productivity result in significantly lower PHg transport to depth during an El Niño year.

Zooplankton grazing reduces the persistence of an anthropogenic pollution marker in lake water

AbstractWastewater treatment plant effluents release microbiological pollutants, including the intI1 gene (integrases of class 1 integron), which has been proposed as a target for monitoring anthropogenic pollution in surface waters. This gene correlates with antibiotic resistance genes, making it an important proxy for genetic contamination in aquatic environments. It is currently unclear whether intI1 found in lake water is mainly present due to continuous seeding or if autochthonous bacteria harbor this gene. To better understand the fate and dynamics of class 1 integrons in aquatic systems, we resorted to classical limnological monitoring of intI1 (qPCR) over multiple years in three different size fractions: free‐living bacteria, particle‐attached bacteria, and zooplankton‐attached bacteria. We also conducted experiments to elucidate the impact of grazers on the abundance of intI1. The monitoring of different size fractions of the Lake Maggiore microbial community showed a particle‐bound lifestyle for intI1‐hosting bacteria. Most of these bacteria originated from both a wastewater effluent that discharges into Lake Maggiore and the lake water itself (amplicon sequencing). We hypothesize that these bacteria grow on particles in open waters, making them particularly vulnerable to grazing by large filter feeders such as Daphnia. Therefore, the presence of Daphnia reduced the abundance of intI1 in lake water, whereas this was not true for other grazers such as Rotaria macrura or Poterioochromonas sp. Our study shows that the food web structure and temporal changes in the lake influence the abundance of intI1 and consequently the assessment of anthropogenic pollution.

Time-series metagenomics reveals changing protistan ecology of a temperate dimictic lake

BackgroundProtists, single-celled eukaryotic organisms, are critical to food web ecology, contributing to primary productivity and connecting small bacteria and archaea to higher trophic levels. Lake Mendota is a large, eutrophic natural lake that is a Long-Term Ecological Research site and among the world’s best-studied freshwater systems. Metagenomic samples have been collected and shotgun sequenced from Lake Mendota for the last 20 years. Here, we analyze this comprehensive time series to infer changes to the structure and function of the protistan community and to hypothesize about their interactions with bacteria.ResultsBased on small subunit rRNA genes extracted from the metagenomes and metagenome-assembled genomes of microeukaryotes, we identify shifts in the eukaryotic phytoplankton community over time, which we predict to be a consequence of reduced zooplankton grazing pressures after the invasion of a invasive predator (the spiny water flea) to the lake. The metagenomic data also reveal the presence of the spiny water flea and the zebra mussel, a second invasive species to Lake Mendota, prior to their visual identification during routine monitoring. Furthermore, we use species co-occurrence and co-abundance analysis to connect the protistan community with bacterial taxa. Correlation analysis suggests that protists and bacteria may interact or respond similarly to environmental conditions. Cryptophytes declined in the second decade of the timeseries, while many alveolate groups (e.g., ciliates and dinoflagellates) and diatoms increased in abundance, changes that have implications for food web efficiency in Lake Mendota.ConclusionsWe demonstrate that metagenomic sequence-based community analysis can complement existing efforts to monitor protists in Lake Mendota based on microscopy-based count surveys. We observed patterns of seasonal abundance in microeukaryotes in Lake Mendota that corroborated expectations from other systems, including high abundance of cryptophytes in winter and diatoms in fall and spring, but with much higher resolution than previous surveys. Our study identified long-term changes in the abundance of eukaryotic microbes and provided context for the known establishment of an invasive species that catalyzes a trophic cascade involving protists. Our findings are important for decoding potential long-term consequences of human interventions, including invasive species introduction.BaNPxYigHXA7H5uqkH8sryVideo

Seamounts generate efficient active transport loops to nourish the twilight ecosystem.

Seamounts are ecological oases nurturing abundant fisheries resources and epibenthic megafauna in the vast oligotrophic ocean. Despite their significance, the formation mechanisms underlying these seamount ecological oases remain uncertain. To shed light on this phenomenon, this study conducted interdisciplinary in situ observations focusing on a shallow seamount in the oligotrophic ocean. The findings show that the seamount's topography interferes with the oceanic current to generate lee waves, effectively enhancing the nutrient supply to the euphotic layer downstream of the seamount. This continuous supply enhances phytoplankton biomass and subsequently the grazing and diurnal vertical migration of zooplankton, rapidly transporting the augmented phytoplankton biomass to the aphotic layer. Unlike the cyclonic eddies that move in the upper ocean, seamounts stand at fixed locations creating a more efficient and steady active transport loop. This active transport loop connects the euphotic and twilight zones, potentially conveying nourishment to benthic ecosystems to create stereoscopic oases in the oligotrophic ocean.

Model exploration of microplastic effects on zooplankton grazing reveal potential impacts on the global carbon cycle

Amongst the increasing number of anthropogenic stress factors threatening ocean equilibrium, microplastics (MP; < 5 mm) have emerged as particularly worrisome. In situ observations have shown that MP accumulate in large areas at the surface ocean where it may threaten the functioning marine species. In particular, experimental evidence has shown that the grazing rates of several zooplankton species may be significantly altered by MP. These direct impacts on zooplankton may alter nutrient and carbon cycling. However, how these laboratory results may translate into impacts on the global ocean is yet unknown. Here, we use a global coupled physical-biogeochemical model including MP (NEMO/PISCES-PLASTIC) to investigate the impacts of MP exposure on zooplankton grazing rates. Drawing from experimental results, we use varying water contamination impact thresholds to explore the biogeochemical consequences of MP impacts on short (10 years) and long timescales (100 years). Our simulations show that the geographical extent of MP impacts on zooplankton remains restricted to about 10% of the global ocean surface, even after 100 years of constant MP contamination. However, in the most contaminated regions (e.g. the sub-tropical gyres), [MP] has surged from a few mg m−3 to > 50 mg m−3. Despite their oligotrophic nature and limited contribution to the overall ocean carbon cycle, MP impacts on zooplankton grazing could disrupt carbon cycling in these highly contaminated regions (up to 50% reduction in yearly primary production, carbon export fluxes and organic matter remineralisation after 100 years). Our research suggests that persistent MP pollution in the ocean could diminish primary production by 4%. In spite of the large sensitivity of our results to the water contamination impact threshold, we suggest MP impacts on zooplankton grazing may cause an annual loss of 1 Gt yr−1 of exported carbon after 100 years, if MP inputs remain constant globally.

Impact of Spatial Variability in Zooplankton Grazing Rates on Carbon Export Flux

AbstractThe biological carbon pump is a key controller of how much carbon is stored within the global ocean. This pathway is influenced by food web interactions between zooplankton and their prey. In global biogeochemical models, Holling Type functional responses are frequently used to represent grazing interactions. How these responses are parameterized greatly influences biomass and subsequent carbon export estimates. The half‐saturation constant, or k value, is central to the Holling functional response. Empirical studies show k can vary over three orders of magnitude, however, this variation is poorly represented in global models. This study derives zooplankton grazing dynamics from remote sensing products of phytoplankton biomass, resulting in global distribution maps of the grazing parameter k. The impact of these spatially varying k values on model skill and carbon export flux estimates is then considered. This study finds large spatial variation in k values across the global ocean, with distinct distributions for micro‐ and mesozooplankton. High half‐saturation constants, which drive slower grazing, are generally associated with areas of high productivity. Grazing rate parameterization is found to be critical in reproducing satellite‐derived distributions of small phytoplankton biomass, highlighting the importance of top‐down drivers for this size class. Spatially varying grazing dynamics decrease mean total carbon export by &gt;17% compared to globally homogeneous dynamics, with increases in fecal pellet export and decreases in export from algal aggregates. This study highlights the importance of grazing dynamics to both community structure and carbon export, with implications for modeling marine carbon sequestration under future climate scenarios.

Southern Ocean phytoplankton under climate change: a shifting balance of bottom-up and top-down control

Abstract. Phytoplankton form the base of the marine food web by transforming CO2 into organic carbon via photosynthesis. Despite the importance of phytoplankton for marine ecosystems and global carbon cycling, projections of phytoplankton biomass in response to climate change differ strongly across Earth system models, illustrating uncertainty in our understanding of the underlying processes. Differences are especially large in the Southern Ocean, a region that is notoriously difficult to represent in models. Here, we argue that total (depth-integrated) phytoplankton biomass in the Southern Ocean is projected to largely remain unchanged under climate change by the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) multi-model ensemble because of a shifting balance of bottom-up and top-down processes driven by a shoaling mixed-layer depth. A shallower mixed layer is projected on average to improve growth conditions, consequently weaken bottom-up control, and confine phytoplankton closer to the surface. An increase in the phytoplankton concentration promotes zooplankton grazing efficiency, thus intensifying top-down control. However, large differences across the model ensemble exist, with some models simulating a decrease in surface phytoplankton concentrations. To reduce uncertainties in projections of surface phytoplankton concentrations, we employ an emergent constraint approach using the observed sensitivity of surface chlorophyll concentration, taken as an observable proxy for phytoplankton, to seasonal changes in the mixed-layer depth as an indicator for future changes in surface phytoplankton concentrations. The emergent constraint reduces uncertainties in surface phytoplankton concentration projections by around one-third and increases confidence that surface phytoplankton concentrations will indeed rise due to shoaling mixed layers under global warming, thus favouring intensified top-down control. Overall, our results suggest that while changes in bottom-up conditions stimulate enhanced growth, intensified top-down control opposes an increase in phytoplankton and becomes increasingly important for the phytoplankton response to climate change in the Southern Ocean.

Community structure and function during periods of high performance and system upset in a full-scale mixed microalgal wastewater resource recovery facility

Microalgae have the potential to exceed current nutrient recovery limits from wastewater, enabling water resource recovery facilities (WRRFs) to achieve increasingly stringent effluent permits. The use of photobioreactors (PBRs) and the separation of hydraulic retention and solids residence time (HRT/SRT) further enables increased biomass in a reduced physical footprint while allowing operational parameters (e.g., SRT) to select for desired functional communities. However, as algal technology transitions to full-scale, there is a need to understand the effect of operational and environmental parameters on complex microbial dynamics among mixotrophic microalgae, bacterial groups, and pests (i.e., grazers and pathogens) and to implement robust process controls for stable long-term performance. Here, we examine a full-scale, intensive WRRF utilizing mixed microalgae for tertiary treatment in the US (EcoRecover, Clearas Water Recovery Inc.) during a nine-month monitoring campaign. We investigated the temporal variations in microbial community structure (18S and 16S rRNA genes), which revealed that stable system performance of the EcoRecover system was marked by a low-diversity microalgal community (DINVSIMPSON = 2.01) dominated by Scenedesmus sp. (MRA = 55 %-80 %) that achieved strict nutrient removal (effluent TP < 0.04 mg·L-1) and steady biomass concentration (TSSmonthly avg. = 400–700 mg·L−1). Operational variables including pH, alkalinity, and influent ammonium (NH4+), correlated positively (p < 0.05, method = Spearman) with algal community during stable performance. Further, the use of these parameters as operational controls along with N/P loading and SRT allowed for system recovery following upset events. Importantly, the presence or absence of bacterial nitrification did not directly impact algal system performance and overall nutrient recovery, but partial nitrification (potentially resulting from NO2− accumulation) inhibited algal growth and should be considered during long-term operation. The microalgal communities were also adversely affected by zooplankton grazers (ciliates, rotifers) and fungal parasites (Aphelidium), particularly during periods of upset when algal cultures were experiencing culture turnover or stress conditions (e.g., nitrogen limitation, elevated temperature). Overall, the active management of system operation in order to maintain healthy algal cultures and high biomass productivity can result in significant periods (>4 months) of stable system performance that achieve robust nutrient recovery, even in winter months in northern latitudes (WI, USA).