Meso Factors Research Articles

Can green finance policies accurately promote corporate environmental investment?—a comprehensive evaluation from multiple aspects

The 28th United Nations Climate Change Conference, held in the United Arab Emirates at the end of November 2023, stated that climate action cannot be delayed and the financing and investment situation for adapting to climate change needs a qualitative leap. Vigorously developing green finance is one of the important ways to achieve this goal. The core question of this paper is: Can green finance policies promote enterprises’ environmental investment? This article uses the formal implementation of the “Green Credit Guidelines” in 2012 as a quasi-natural experiment, bases on the micro data of A-share listed companies from 2004 to 2020, and adopts the difference-indifferences propensity score matching method (PSM-DID) to explore the role of green credit policy in guiding corporate environmental protection investment from multiple dimensions. The research shows that the implementation of the “Green Credit Guidelines” has promoted corporate environmental protection investment to a certain extent, and the conclusion still holds after a series of robustness tests. Heterogeneity tests found that the impact of green credit policy on corporate environmental protection investment varies significantly among different ownership enterprises and enterprises in different regions. Further research shows that the Green Credit Guidelines are regulated by macro and meso factors. From the perspective of mechanism, this paper finds out the mechanism of promoting enterprises’ environmental protection investment at the micro level. At the macro level, economic policy uncertainty and monetary policy tightening affect the degree of corporate environmental protection investment. At the meso level, the government’s attention to environmental protection determines the behavior of local enterprises, which in turn affects the attitude of enterprises towards environmental protection investment activities. At the micro level, the implementation of green credit on the one hand exacerbates the problem of corporate financing constraints, making companies have incentives to invest in environmental protection to alleviate this problem. On the other hand, it will also promote changes in innovation and capital factors in enterprises, directly increasing corporate environmental protection investment. This paper is helpful for the theoretical circle and management departments, so as to provide reference for the government to issue relevant policies.

The influence of meso and macro factors on caregiving of older persons in Singapore: A narrative review

Background Studies on caregiving burden in Singapore typically focus on issues at a personal or micro level. There is a paucity of research focused at a meso or macro level on caregiving. Objective The purpose of this narrative review is to explore the influence of meso and macro factors on caregiving by informal caregivers of older persons in Singapore. Method Studies were identified from sources such as CINAHL, PsycINFO, PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, as well as other websites for grey literature. Studies focusing on informal caregivers, defined as family, friends, or foreign domestic workers providing care to an older adult (60 and above) were included. Other inclusion criteria include: (a) studies focusing on meso factors (e.g., social norms, community resource, social network) and/or studies focusing on macro factors (e.g., caregiver support policies, workplace policies, care services policies, or caregiver payment policies), (b) studies with outcome measures on caregivers/caregiving such as burden, gains, or grief, and (c) in Singapore. Results & Conclusion A total of 43 studies were included in this review. A range of meso factors influencing caregivers/caregiving were identified. Examples include filial piety, norm of women as caregivers, interventions aimed at helping caregivers, and care services such as day cares. However, the influence of macro level factors (e.g., national level policies) was limited due to a relative paucity of research in this area. Areas for further research were also identified.

Recruitment and retention of US Latinos in biomedical research and clinical trials

AbstractLatinos/Hispanics are underrepresented in clinical trials for Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias (ADRD).This underrepresentation reduces the generalizability of research findings, widening health disparities. These are significant public health concerns, because Latinos have a higher risk than non‐Latino Whites to develop ADRD and represent 19% of the US population.Taking lessons from the micro‐meso‐macro framework of Maria Aranda et al., in this session the Recruitment and Clinical Trials Special Interest Group (SIG) of the US Consortium of Aging, Dementia & Latino Studies (CADLAS) will discuss opportunities, challenges and future directions across multiple lenses of analysis. We argue that to increase Latino representation it is essential a far‐reaching perspective sensitive to the interplay among subjective/community (i.e., micro) factors, meso factors pertaining to the domain of clinical trials and researchers, as well as macro factors such as policies of funders and regulatory agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).The SIG aims to promote collaborations among investigators working to improve participation and retention of US Latino/Hispanic populations into clinical research. Building on the expertise of SIG members, key opportunities range from fostering career advancements while offering job opportunities to Latino outreach specialists, to playing Loteria to engage Latino audiences. Opportunities also include new ways of designing participants’ incentives moving beyond financial compensations to include ad‐hoc medical services, and caregiving and transportation supports. Challenges range from funders not requiring comprehensive and culturally‐relevant recruitment plans (and related budgets), to limited awareness of clinical trials in Latino communities. Promising directions include emerging partnerships between national organizations trusted by Latino communities and the Alzheimer’s Clinical Trial Consortium, and the recent plan of the FDA to recommend diversity plans. The session will end with a set of recommendations leveraging on opportunities and promising directions.

Recovery from COVID-19 crisis in public health perspective

Introduction. Assessments of the response to the COVID-19 pandemic so far are negative. They can be summarized as: the world was not prepared, action was insufficient, public and private institutions failed people to protect their health and everyday life. The pandemic highlighted public health weakness. Purpose. The aim is: (1) to polemic with the comparison of the pandemic to the black swan, (2) to list the negative and positive effects of the pandemic mentioned in the literature, (3) to discuss public health attributes related to counteracting epidemics, and (4) to present ways of recovery after pandemic crisis from a public health perspective. The state of knowledge. Comparing the COVID-19 pandemic to the black swan is incorrect. The literature describes the negative effects of a pandemic better than its positive effects, but there is a trend to explore unexpected positive effects or the balance of losses and gains. The public health tasks in counteracting epidemics include the development and implementation of preparedness and response plans, pursuit of health equity and fairness and care on the most vulnerable through interdisciplinary and cross-sectoral activities. The literature recommends many solutions to improve the health systems, including public health, and to strengthen the role of public health. They can be assigned to three groups: macro factors related to the political-economic context, meso factors related to the internal principles of the health system functioning and micro factors related to the functioning of the system in relations with users. Conclusions. Public health is essential to national security. It is up to decision makers, the establishment, citizens and the community to implement the postulates to improve the health and public health system.

The perspectives of healthcare professionals in mental health settings on stigma and recovery - A qualitative inquiry

BackgroundMental health stigma is one of the most prominent barriers to recovery, and it is widely known that stigma may manifest differentially in different cultures. Healthcare professionals working closely with persons with mental illnesses (PMI) may provide important insights towards stigma that are otherwise unattainable from caregivers and consumers. However, there is a dearth of literature on healthcare professionals’ perspectives on this topic. Thus, this study uses a multilevel approach to explore how stigma affects recovery from the perspectives of healthcare professionals that work closely with PMI in Singapore.MethodsSemi-structured interviews were conducted with a total of 17 healthcare professionals who were working in mental health settings in Singapore. Participants were recruited via direct email invitation or through snowball sampling. Data collected was analysed with the inductive thematic analysis method. All coding and inter-rater analyses were performed with NVivo.ResultsThe current study themes identified stigma-related factors that influence PMI’s recovery from the perspectives of healthcare professionals working closely with PMI. These factors were organised into three overarching themes in a multilevel structure. The three themes were classified as Micro Factors (e.g., internalised stigma), Meso Factors (e.g., discrimination of people associated with the stigmatised group), and Macro Factors (e.g., structural stigma and stigma within healthcare settings).ConclusionsThe findings of this study gave us a greater understanding of how stigma influences recovery in Singapore, which could be used to guide the development and implementation of future policies and strategies to promote recovery. Importantly, our results suggest that improving mental health literacy, addressing cultural misgivings towards mental illness, implementing recovery-oriented practices, and making insurance more accessible for PMI could mitigate the deleterious impact that stigma has on recovery.

Road to nowhere or to somewhere? Migrant pathways in platform work in Canada

Canada boasts some of the most highly educated migrants in the world, but it is well recognised that these migrants face many labour market barriers to gainful employment despite their experience and qualification. Administrative data indicate that the proportion of gig workers is considerably higher among migrants, yet little is known about the various perceived and desired pathways of migrants who choose to pursue platform work. In this inductive, qualitative study, we interviewed 35 platform workers in Canada regarding why and how they turned to such forms of work and how it fits their overall plans for integrating into the Canadian labour market. Adopting a grounded theory approach, we found six pathways into platform work ranging from those who feel in control of the situation as a means to an end, to those who feel trapped in it, unable to find alternatives. We question how these pathways relate to macro factors (e.g. immigration status, professional status), meso factors (e.g. education and skills, networks) or micro factors (e.g. stage in life cycle, aspirations). In our analysis, we consider the critical insights offered by scholars on racial and platform capitalism in understanding the factors impacting migrants’ pathways into platform work in Canada. Our findings suggest that these structural inequalities are further perpetuated within platform work, even though in theory Canada's immigration system is merit-based with emphasis on high human capital. Migrants’ engagement in platform work is a piece of a larger puzzle of segmented labour markets.

Understanding the Climate-Conflict-Migration Nexus: Immigration from Climate-Conflict Zones to Turkey

Regardless of the level of development, all countries are affected by the negative consequences of climate change, and economic, environmental, and social consequences emerge accordingly. Climate change is now being considered as a development and security problem. The main reason for this is that climate-related extreme weather events cause disasters, and that climate change is a threat multiplier for conflicts as it increases the struggle for scarce natural resources. This paper attempts to explain migration to Turkey from Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Bangladesh based on climate-induced internal displacement data using the Foresight Model. The study focuses on whether it is possible to predict migration from these countries by using the Foresight Model based on the comparison of the limited data with the IDMC data. Immigration was examined in three countries, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, with the exception of India, which was compatible with disaster-induced internal displacement IDMC data, by comparing DGMM data on illegal migrants apprehended with YÖK data on international students. It is concluded that a minimalist approach is more appropriate to explain climate induced migration to Turkey, and the micro and meso factors should also be considered based on the Foresight Model. IDMC, DGMM and YÖK data are compatible with each other, and there is a need for comprehensive data, including these data in climate-induced migration forecasts.

HIV and Mental Health Services in the US South: A Meso Analysis.

The US South is disproportionately impacted by HIV. Social, cultural, economic, and political characteristics of the South shape access to mental health services leaving adverse impacts on health and wellness outcomes among People Living with HIV. The aim of this paper was to: (a) identify meso factors (at individual, organizational and community-level manifestations) which impact mental health services among People living with HIV in the South of those factors and (b) pose community-articulated recommendation and strategies. Through qualitative interviews with People Living with HIV and service providers, this study found that the meso factors of restricted funding and compounding stigma shaped mental health services in the South. Given the disproportionate rate of HIV, lack of mental health care, and landscape of socio-political factors unique to the region, attention to intervenable meso factors and community-based strategies are needed to enhance mental health services and respond to the HIV epidemic in the US South.

FACTORS AFFECTING SYRIAN FEMALE RESEARCHERS’ EXPERIENCE DURING CRISIS: INDUCTIVE APPROACH

Purpose – The purpose of this research is to explore factors influencing Syrian female academic researchers’ experience in academic research in the field of business and economics studies. Research Methodology – The research methodology follows a qualitative approach. The methodology is based on conducting focus groups with female academic researchers selected from Syrian public and private universities, to clarify any potential factors, which may be influencing women researchers’ experience. Subsequently, a semi-structured interview protocol is designed to be applied to this target group. A judgement-sampling technique is selected at Syrian public and private universities. Findings – The research findings indicate that personality traits, passion for research, marital and maternal status are important micro-level factors are influencing female researchers’ experience. Academic work overload, an organisational culture of the institution, need for networking support with the business sector, are identified as meso factors. Finally, social culture and norms of the Middle Eastern societies, stereotyping and interpretation of religion are crucial factors at a macrolevel. The research develops a theoretical framework of dimensions, which may be influencing female academic researchers in the field of business and economics. Research Limitation/Implications – The research limitation is associated with sampling size and geographical scope. Future studies could investigate a larger sample with representative geographical scopes, and employs theory testing approaches. Future research could also extend its investigation to examine further disciplines including science, mathematics, engineering and technology. Practical Implications – The study provides practical advice to decision and policymakers examining employment and hiring structure and suggests evaluating policies associated with support with childcare providing on-campus childcare. The study advises introducing support mechanisms for improving the reward system and compensations schemes for academic researchers, encouraging the development and production of scientific research. Originality/Value – There is no prior research on women researchers in Syria. This research is considered as a new perspective of women researchers in Syria during a sensitive time, which characterises Syria. The study provides a theoretical contribution associated with experiences of female researchers at faculties of business and economics in Syrian higher education.

Exploring factors which influence the prescription of medicines to manage neuropathic pain from the perspective of prescribers: a qualitative study

Abstract Introduction Neuropathic pain (NP) is estimated to affect about 8% of the population in the UK. NP is defined as ‘pain caused by a lesion or disease of the somatosensory nervous system’ (1). NP often results in alterations in the pain pathway caused by tissue and nerve damage leading to hypersensitivity, characterised by spontaneous pain (no stimuli exist but the organism feels pain), allodynia (painless tactile stimulus or warmth are perceived as pain) and hyperalgesia (painful stimuli make the organism feel pain of greater intensity) (2). Most people present with neuropathic pain for the first time in primary care settings. It is important therefore, to understand the experiences of the prescribers who prescribe to this group of patients in order to highlight areas of good practice and to identify areas where support is required, and improvements need to be made. Aim To explore prescribers’ experiences of managing patients with neuropathic pain and the influence of these experiences on prescribing and treatment choices. Methods This study adopted a qualitative approach and obtained ethical approval. Purposive and snowball sampling methods were used to recruit General Practitioners (GPs), Advanced Nurse Practitioners (ANPs) and Pharmacist Independent Prescribers working in general practices in West Yorkshire. Semi-structured interviews were conducted face-to-face or by the telephone. The interviews took place between December 2019 and September 2020. The interviews were transcribed verbatim. Thematic analysis was used to identify key themes from the data. NVivo (version 12.6) was used to aid the analysis. Results 21 healthcare professionals responsible for prescribing medication to people with neuropathic pain were interviewed (GPs = 10, ANPs = 6 Pharmacists = 5). Prescribers identified several factors which influence their prescribing and treatment choices. These factors were grouped into micro, meso and macro factors. Micro factors were prescriber related factors such as experience or training in pain management, support from colleagues and prescriber-patient relationship. Meso factors were related to the patient and included factors such as side effects, comorbid conditions and addictive tendency. Macro level factors were those related to the health system such as timely access to specialists, length of consultations and cost-effective prescribing. Table 1 provides some illustrative quotes from the prescribers. All prescribers reported to derive satisfaction from being able to successfully help their patients manage the NP symptoms but acknowledged that this was sometimes not possible. Conclusion This study found that the experiences of prescribers with regards to managing NP is more negative than positive. Prescribers highlighted the challenges of managing neuropathic pain in primary care settings. This is largely due to the complexities of the condition and of prescribing decisions as well poor treatment outcomes for patients. A study limitation is the generalisability of the sample with participants not representing more geographical areas. Prescribers require appropriate support and training in managing NP to build their confidence in making prescribing decisions. It is also important to ensure patients get timely access to pain specialists and pain management clinics for specialist treatment.

Operational capabilities dissemination for sustainable competitiveness: towards an integrated framework

This article aims to present an integrated framework, composed by micro and meso factors that impact the process of operational capabilities dissemination among an intraorganisational network (manufacturing or service provider). There are various perspectives to explain it, however, due to high number of factors and complexity of operational capabilities elements, previous studies seem to be incomplete to unfold the entire process of capability dissemination. This study comprises a multi-stage empirical analysis of manager's perceptions of the factors for building a cognitive causal model for operational capability dissemination within a network. The contribution of this study includes: 1) as a methodological tool, it can support future researchers during the difficult process of forming causal relations; 2) as a theoretical framework for operational capabilities dissemination to sustain and spread competitiveness among units; 3) can support managers to address actions for capability dissemination and overcome the challenges to keep sustainable competitiveness.

Getting the green light on green public procurement: Macro and meso determinants

Green public procurement (GPP) has been extensively adopted as a public administration tool for achieving sustainability outcomes. However, there is a marked lack of understanding regarding the determinants of GPP adoption beyond, that is, the characteristics of the contracting authority. Indeed, most studies have focused their attention on these micro determinants, with little being known about the macro and meso factors involved. In this paper, we contribute to the literature by analyzing macro and meso adoption factors. To do so, we explore GPP in the award criteria for twentyfive European countries as recorded in Tenders Electronic Daily database for the period 2006–2017. Our results show significant cross-country differences in GPP uptake and we identify factors beyond those of the contracting unit itself that condition GPP adoption. Specifically, more developed countries and a larger government size impact positively on GPP. GPP adoption has evolved favorably over time, and regional and local administrations show a clearer preference for GPP than is shown by national governments or EU authorities. We find that better governance is linked to GPP adoption and that larger contracts are more likely to include GPP. Our results confirm that join procurement between contracting authorities more probability to adopt GPP. Our results are useful for defining a more comprehensive decision-making framework for GPP.

Relationship among factors affecting research misconduct in medical sciences in Iran

ABSTRACT This study aims to determine the relationship among factors affecting research misconduct within the research system of medical sciences in Iran. Using phenomenography, the perceptions of individuals involved in the activities of macro, meso, and micro levels of the research system were investigated and 13 affecting factors were identified. The DEMATEL method revealed complicated and intertwined relationships among these factors based on the experts’ judgment. Most of the macro and meso factors were in the cause group and most of the micro factors were in the effect group. The results showed that critical factors such as “Monitoring and dealing with research misconduct,” “Transparency in research,” “Management of journals” and “Ethical considerations in the publication of research results” escalate research misconduct. The study indicated that track the relationship among factors in the research system can provide the opportunity to explain research misconduct on a transitional path from macro to micro level.

Cognitive processes, rewards and online knowledge sharing behaviour: the moderating effect of organisational innovation

PurposeOnline knowledge sharing is a critical process for maintaining organisational competitive advantage. This paper aims to develop a new conceptual framework that investigates the moderating impacts of innovation on self-efficacy, extrinsic and intrinsic rewards on employees’ online knowledge sharing behaviour in public and private sector companies.Design/methodology/approachThis research analysed 200 responses to test the moderating effects of organisational innovation on the relationship between self-efficacy and rewards and online knowledge sharing behviours. The analysis was carried out using component-based partial least squares (PLS) approach and SmartPLS 3 software.FindingsThe results reveal that self-efficacy significantly affects online knowledge sharing behaviour in firms, regardless of the organisation type. Extrinsic rewards encourage employees in private companies to share knowledge online, whereas intrinsic rewards work effectively in public companies. Additionally, the study found the moderating role of organisational innovation in examining the relationship between rewards and online knowledge sharing behaviour.Research limitations/implicationsFuture research may consider different dimensions such as knowledge donating and collecting behaviours as well as motives, such as self-enjoyment, reciprocity or social interaction ties, which may be investigated to get a deeper understanding of online knowledge sharing behaviour.Practical implicationsFirms must tailor training and rewards to suit employees’ abilities and needs so as to align with organisation type and innovation.Originality/valueThe study’s distinctive contribution is the under-researched context of Vietnamese public and private sector banks for investigating the moderating effects of organisational innovation on micro and meso factors on online knowledge sharing behaviour.

Capacidades tecnológicas y vínculos territoriales en empresas argentinas de maquinaria agrícola

El presente trabajo analiza el sendero de construcción de capacidades tecnológicas en empresas argentinas de maquinaria agrícola, a fin de desentrañar sus procesos de innovación, así como los mecanismos de aprendizaje aplicados. Asimismo, se estudian los vínculos con los agentes externos, teniendo en cuenta las condiciones del entorno y el rol de las instituciones intermediarias. Desde un abordaje empírico, evolutivo y sistémico el estudio permitió integrar y profundizar dichas temáticas considerando los puentes entre el sistema nacional, sectorial y territorial de innovación. Las experiencias analizadas revelan la influencia de un conjunto de factores y las posibles irregularidades y diversidad de ritmos de los procesos de innovación en un área industrial específica de un país en desarrollo.

El enfoque de sistemas migratorios revisitado. Una propuesta teórica para el estudio del sistema migratorio de América Latina y el Caribe

Resumen El objetivo de este artículo es revisitar los orígenes, desarrollo, límites y potencialidades del enfoque de sistemas migratorios, para formular una propuesta teórica que, a la hora de analizar la conformación, retroalimentación y reconfiguración de los sistemas migratorios, considere el papel de la estructura, de los factores de carácter meso (como las instituciones o los colectivos) y de la agencia migrante (individual y colectiva). Partimos para ello, de una perspectiva crítica dialéctica que establece un vínculo entre los elementos del sistema con los condicionantes estructurales, al tiempo que recupera la agencia migrante, principalmente en su dimensión colectiva. Nuestra propuesta será aplicada exploratoriamente al estudio del sistema migratorio de América Latina y el Caribe en el periodo 1970-2018. Más allá de una mera descripción de los principales rasgos del sistema y sus subsistemas, tratamos de mostrar los elementos que condicionan su estabilidad y evolución, resaltando, además de los elementos clásicos de los sistemas, el peso de los condicionantes estructurales, así como de las resistencias y estrategias desarrolladas por los colectivos migrantes.

Inclusion health in UK-relevant policy reviews of health inequalities: a thematic, multilevel, governance document analysis

BackgroundSome practitioners and researchers have advocated for greater attention to extreme health disadvantages associated with experiences of social exclusion (eg, homelessness, substance use, or imprisonment), which are not captured by conventional measures of socioeconomic position. It is therefore timely to examine whether such so-called inclusion health concerns feature in health inequalities policy in the UK. We analysed how flagship reviews on health inequalities described, explained, and made recommendations relating to these experiences. MethodsOur purposive sample comprised the five most recent health inequalities policy reviews from different levels of governance in the UK (ie, devolved, national, and international), spanning 2008–14. We undertook thematic analysis using the framework method. The results of line-by-line coding were summarised into framework matrices using NVivo 11 and interpreted using mind-mapping, cross-comparison, and discussion among the project team. FindingsDocuments differed in which experiences were featured and who was constructed as “excluded” or “vulnerable”. Documents proposed various explanations for health inequalities associated with these experiences, from micro (eg, individual behaviours) through meso factors (eg, access to services), to macro forces (eg, globalisation and climate change). Concepts of the life course and so-called intergenerational transmission were also important explanatory themes. Although recommendations spanned all levels from individual to structural, unifying themes included partnership working; early years intervention; and access to health care. Acknowledgement of intersectional aspects of inequalities was largely limited to descriptions and explanations and was less often reflected in recommendations. InterpretationUnderstanding how health inequalities are framed is important, because such framings reflect and shape what the problem is perceived to be, what solutions are proposed, and how success is defined. Although these flagship policy reviews of health inequalities did acknowledge some inclusion health experiences, they used concepts of inclusion, vulnerability, and disadvantage ambiguously. Focus on health care was disproportionate in both explanations and recommendations. To address potential tensions between different framings of health inequalities, policy making in this area would benefit from a clear conceptual framework encompassing diverse forms of social stratification, advantage, and disadvantage. FundingEJT, SVK, and FP are funded by the Medical Research Council grant MC_UU_12017/13 and by the Chief Scientist Office grant SPHSU13. EJT, SVK, and HT are funded by the Medical Research Council grant MC_UU_12017/15 and by the Chief Scientist Office grant SPHSU15. In addition, EJT is funded by a Chief Scientist Office Clinical Academic Fellowship (CAF/17/11) and SVK by an NRS Scottish Senior Clinical Fellowship (SCAF/15/02).

Operational Capabilities Dissemination for Sustainable Competitiveness: Towards an Integrated Framework

This article aims to present an integrated framework, composed by micro and meso factors that impact the process of operational capabilities dissemination among an intraorganisational network (manufacturing or service provider). There are various perspectives to explain it, however, due to high number of factors and complexity of operational capabilities elements, previous studies seem to be incomplete to unfold the entire process of capability dissemination. This study comprises a multi-stage empirical analysis of manager's perceptions of the factors for building a cognitive causal model for operational capability dissemination within a network. The contribution of this study includes: 1) as a methodological tool, it can support future researchers during the difficult process of forming causal relations; 2) as a theoretical framework for operational capabilities dissemination to sustain and spread competitiveness among units; 3) can support managers to address actions for capability dissemination and overcome the challenges to keep sustainable competitiveness.

A micro-sociological analysis of homegrown violent extremist attacks in the UK in 2017

ABSTRACT The academic literature on terrorism largely ignores micro-sociological explanations of violence. This is especially true in relation to the research concerning Homegrown Violent Extremists (HVE). This article provides a micro-sociological analysis of four high-profile terrorist attacks that occurred in the British cities of London and Manchester in 2017, which were carried out with deadly effect by HVE. The main focus of the article is the micro-dynamics surrounding each violent episode, although the article also recognizes the importance of the meso factors and macro motivations underpinning these violent acts. One of the central assertions of this article is that most humans dislike and are not particularly good at violence. As such, it seeks to understand how the individuals involved in these attacks could partake in such violence. It argues that most individuals must employ what we refer to as the principle of Attacker Advantage to commit violent acts, regardless of other factors and motivations.

Religious Conflicts: Opportunity Structures, Group Dynamics, and Framing

Explanations of violent religious conflicts usually focus on preconditions, facilitator causes or precipitating events at micro, meso or macro levels of analysis. As social psychology is the scientific study of the ways in which thoughts, feelings, perceptions, motives, and behaviors are influenced by interactions and transactions between groups and individuals, it can increase our understanding of the dynamics of religious conflicts at micro and meso levels. In this paper, I illustrate this point with a discussion of the utility of social movement theory for understanding the dynamics of religious conflicts. Social movement theory locates religious conflicts within broader contexts and complex processes by focusing on the interplay between micro and meso factors and the ways in which people perceive macro factors. Given certain conditions, religion can and often do contribute to collective violence. Religion is rarely, if ever, the main cause of intergroup conflicts, but is often used as an instrument for the mobilization of human and non-human resources. Appeal to religion may help conflicting parties overcome the collective action problem associated with intergroup conflicts. This does not necessarily mean that religious conflicts have unique characteristics or a logic of their own that sets them apart from other types of intergroup conflicts.