Mercury Spallation Target Research Articles

Model calibration of the liquid mercury spallation target using evolutionary neural networks and sparse polynomial expansions

The mercury constitutive model predicting the strain and stress in the target vessel plays a central role in improving the lifetime prediction and future target designs of the mercury targets at the Spallation Neutron Source. We leverage the experiment strain data collected over multiple years to improve the mercury constitutive model through a combination of large scale simulations of the target behavior and the use of machine learning tools for parameter estimation. We present two interdisciplinary approaches for surrogate-based model calibration of expensive simulations using evolutionary neural networks and sparse polynomial expansions. The newly calibrated simulations achieve 7% average improvement on the prediction accuracy and 8% reduction in mean absolute error compared to previously reported reference parameters, with some individual sensors experiencing up to 30% improvement. The calibrated simulations can aid in fatigue analysis to estimate the mercury target lifetime, which reduces abrupt failure and saves tremendous amount of costs.

Bayesian inverse uncertainty quantification of the physical model parameters for the spallation neutron source first target station

The reliability of the mercury spallation target is mission-critical for the neutron science program of the spallation neutron source at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. We present an inverse uncertainty quantification (UQ) study using the Bayesian framework for the mercury equation of state model parameters, with the assistance of polynomial chaos expansion surrogate models. By leveraging high-fidelity structural mechanics simulations and real measured strain data, the inverse UQ results reveal a tight posterior distribution for the tensile cutoff threshold, the mercury density, and the mercury speed of sound. The updated distributions do not necessarily represent the nominal mercury physical properties, but the ones that fit the strain data and the solid mechanics model we have used, and can be explained by three reasons. First, the limitations of the computer model or what is known as the “model-form uncertainty” that would result from numerical methods and physical approximations. Second, is the biases and errors in the experimental data. Third, is the mercury cavitation damage that also contributes to the change in mercury behavior. Consequently, the mercury equation of state model parameters try to compensate for these effects to improve fitness to the real data. The mercury target simulations using the posterior parametric values result in an excellent agreement with 88% average accuracy compared to experimental data, 6% average increase compared to reference parameters, with some sensors experiencing an increase of more than 25%. With a more accurate strain response predicted by the calibrated simulations, the component fatigue analysis can utilize the comprehensive strain history data to evaluate the target vessel’s lifetime closer to its real limit, saving tremendous target cost and improving the design of future targets as well.

Small gas bubble experiment for mitigation of cavitation damage and pressure waves in short-pulse mercury spallation targets

Populations of small helium gas bubbles were introduced into a flowing mercury experiment test loop to evaluate mitigation of beam-pulse induced cavitation damage and pressure waves. The test loop was developed and thoroughly tested at the Spallation Neutron Source (SNS) prior to irradiations at the Los Alamos Neutron Science Center–Weapons Neutron Research (LANSCE–WNR) facility. Twelve candidate bubblers were evaluated over a range of mercury flow and gas injection rates by use of a novel optical measurement technique that accurately assessed the generated small bubble size distributions. Final selection for irradiation testing included two variations of a swirl bubbler provided by Japan Proton Accelerator Research Complex (J-PARC) collaborators and one orifice bubbler developed at SNS. Bubble populations of interest consisted of sizes up to 150μm in radius with achieved gas volume fractions in the 10−5–10−4 range. The nominal WNR beam pulse used for the experiment created energy deposition in the mercury comparable to SNS pulses operating at 2.5MW. Nineteen test conditions were completed each with 100 pulses, including variations on mercury flow, gas injection and protons per pulse. The principal measure of cavitation damage mitigation was pitting damage assessment on test specimens that were manually replaced for each test condition. Damage assessment was done after radiation decay and decontamination by optical and laser profiling microscopy with damaged area fraction and maximum pit depth being the more valued results. Damage was reduced by flow alone; the best mitigation from bubble injection was to one-third that of stagnant mercury. Other data collected included surface motion tracking by three Laser Doppler Vibrometers (LDV), test loop wall dynamic strain, beam diagnostics for charge and beam profile assessment, embedded hydrophones and pressure sensors, and sound measurement by a suite of conventional and contact microphones.

Status of R&D on mitigating the effects of pressure waves for the Spallation Neutron Source mercury target

The Spallation Neutron Source (SNS) at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory has been conducting R&D on mitigating the effects of pressure waves in mercury spallation targets since 2001. More precisely, cavitation damage of the target vessel caused by the short beam pulse threatens to limit its lifetime more severely than radiation damage as well as limit its ultimate power capacity – and hence its neutron intensity performance. The R&D program has moved from verification of the beam-induced damage phenomena to study of material and surface treatments for damage resistance to the current emphasis on gas injection techniques for damage mitigation. Two techniques are being worked on: injection of small dispersed gas bubbles that mitigate the pressure waves volumetrically; and protective gas walls that isolate the vessel from the damaging effects of collapsing cavitation bubbles. The latter has demonstrated good damage mitigation during in-beam testing with limited pulses, and adequate gas wall coverage at the beam entrance window has been demonstrated with the SNS mercury target flow configuration using a full scale mercury test loop. A question on the required area coverage remains which depends on results from SNS target post irradiation examination. The small gas bubble technique has been less effective during past in-beam tests but those results were with un-optimized and un-verified bubble populations. Another round of in-beam tests with small gas bubbles is planned for 2011.The first SNS target was removed from service in mid 2009 and samples were cut from two locations at the target’s beam entrance window. Through-wall damage was observed at the innermost mercury vessel wall (not a containment wall). The damage pattern suggested correlation with the local mercury flow condition which is nearly stagnant at the peak damage location. Detailed post irradiation examination of the samples is under way that will assess the erosion and measure irradiation-induced changes in mechanical properties. Similar samples were cut from the second SNS target after it was removed from service in mid 2010. More extensive damage was observed on the target inner wall but damage to the containment wall was minimal.

Radiochemical aspects of liquid mercury spallation targets

Liquid metal spallation targets using mercury as target material are used in state-of-the-art high power pulsed neutron sources that have been constructed in the USA and Japan within the last decade. Similar target concepts were also proposed for next generation ISOL, β-beam and neutrino facilities. A large amount of radioactivity will be induced in the liquid metal during operation caused by the interaction of the target material with the intense proton beam. This radioactivity – carried by a wide range of radioisotopes of all the elements of the periodic table from hydrogen up to thallium – must be considered for the assessment of safe operation and maintenance procedures as well as for a final disposal of the used target material and components. This report presents an overview on chemical investigations performed in our laboratory that deal with the behavior of radionuclides in proton irradiated mercury samples. The solubility of elements in mercury was calculated using thermodynamical data obtained by a semi-empirical method. It is found that several important nuclear reaction products will reach their solubility limit in a high power mercury spallation target. It is also experimentally proven that the radionuclides produced by proton irradiation are generally not homogeneously distributed in the liquid metal but tend to accumulate on vessel walls and free surfaces. The consequences resulting from this behavior for the operation of mercury spallation targets are discussed.

Cavitation damage experiments for mercury spallation targets at the LANSCE – WNR in 2008

Proton beam experiments investigating cavitation damage in short pulse mercury spallation targets were performed at LANSCE – WNR in July of 2008. They included two main areas for investigation: damage dependence on mercury velocity using geometry more prototypic to the SNS target than previously employed and damage dependence on incident proton beam flux intensity. The flow dependence experiment employed six test targets with mercury velocity in the channel ranging from 0 to more than 4 m/s. Each was hit with 100 WNR beam pulses with peak proton flux equivalent to that of SNS operating at 2.7 MW. Damage dependence on incident proton beam flux intensity was also investigated with three intensity levels used on simple rectangular shaped targets without mercury flow. Intensity variation was imposed by focusing the beam differently while maintaining protons per pulse. This kept total energy deposited in each target constant. A fourth test target was hit with various beams: constant protons and varied spot size; constant spot size and varied protons. No damage will be assessed in this case. Instead, acoustic emissions associated with cavitation collapse were measured by laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) from readings of exterior vessel motions as well as by mercury wetted acoustic transducers. This paper will provide a description of the experiment and present available results. Damage assessment will require several months before surface analysis can be completed and was not available in time for IWSMT-9.

Development of a gas layer to mitigate cavitation damage in liquid mercury spallation targets

Establishment of a gas layer between the flowing liquid and container wall is proposed for mitigating the effects of cavitation in mercury spallation targets. Previous work has shown an order of magnitude decrease in damage for a gas layer developed in a stagnant mercury target for an in-beam experiment. This work is aimed at extending these results to the more complex conditions introduced by a flowing mercury target system. A water-loop has been fabricated to provide initial insights on potential gas injection methods into a flowing liquid. An existing full-scale flow loop designed to simulate the Spallation Neutron Source target system will be used to extend these studies to mercury. A parallel analytical effort is being conducted using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling to provide direction to the experimental effort. Some preliminary simulations of gas injection through a single hole have been completed and show behavior of the models that is qualitatively meaningful.

Cavitation damage experiments for mercury spallation targets at the LANSCE – WNR in 2005

In-beam experiments investigating cavitation damage in short pulse mercury spallation targets were performed at the Los Alamos Neutron Science Center – Weapons Neutron Research (LANSCE – WNR) facility in 2005. Two main areas were investigated. First, damage dependence on three mercury conditions – stagnant, flowing, and flowing with bubble injection – was investigated by employing a small mercury target loop with replaceable damage test specimens. One hundred beam pulses were passed through the loop mercury and specimen pair for each test condition. Damage with flowing mercury ( V = 0.4 m/s) was less than half that which was incurred with stagnant mercury. Gas bubble injection added into the flow further reduced damage to about one-fourth that of stagnant mercury. Acoustic emissions from cavitation bubble collapse were concurrently measured on the exterior of the loop using a laser Doppler vibrometer and were correlated to the observed damage. The second area of experimentation was erosion rate dependence on proton beam intensity. Prior research had indicated that incubation-phase cavitation erosion rate is strongly dependent on beam intensity, by a power law with the exponent perhaps as large as 4. The 2005 results are inconsistent with earlier in-beam test results and do not support the power law dependence. This paper will provide a detailed description of the experiment, present results and discuss the findings.

Current status of 1 MW pulse spallation neutron source (JSNS) of J-PARC

Construction of a 1 MW pulse spallation neutron source (JSNS) is in progress under the J-PARC project to provide a vital experimental environment for breakthroughs in neutrons researches with emphasis in materials and life sciences. An overview of the JSNS is given in terms of 1 MW power regime, the mercury spallation target, cryogenic H 2 moderators, and the central station with 23 independent neutron beam shutters. Conventional facility construction and neutron instrumentation scheme are briefly shown along with the technical research and development with emphasis on material issues.

Benchmarking dynamic strain predictions of pulsed mercury spallation target vessels

Pulsed mercury spallation targets like that used in the Spallation Neutron Source (SNS) feature a target vessel that strains with each burst of protons. A robust simulation method for predicting the strain response of the target vessel is needed to evaluate the target’s fatigue life. The interaction of pressure waves in the mercury with the vessel is a complex problem made more difficult by cavitation. The importance of benchmarking simulations had been recognized by SNS and its R&D program included experiments for measuring strains in various mercury-filled targets responding to single-beam pulses. Recent progress with simulations is reported. Results for two experimental targets are presented and compared to their test data, and the development of simulation parameters improved predictions is discussed. Overall the recent simulations do a fairly good job of predicting strain magnitude and dynamic response. In some target locations the predictions match data quite well, but this quality is not universally achieved.

Materials research and development for the spallation neutron source mercury target

In the Spallation Neutron Source target, the structural material will be exposed to intense pulsed fluxes of high-energy protons and neutrons, which produce radiation damage. These pulsed fluxes also lead to pressure pulses created by beam heating. In turn, the pressure pulses give rise to fluctuating stresses in the 316 LN austenitic stainless steel target vessel, and to cavitation in the liquid mercury spallation target. Corrosion reactions and related changes in mechanical properties also may occur through contact with flowing mercury. We describe the materials research and development program for the spallation target. The program covers the areas of cavitation erosion, radiation effects, and compatibility. Cavitation erosion work includes pressure wave tests at the LANSCE proton accelerator, as well as laboratory tests that simulate aspects of the actual in-beam exposures. Materials irradiations are being carried out in spallation environments at high-energy and high-power proton accelerators. Other experiments are conducted at irradiation facilities that simulate aspects of spallation conditions. Extensive radiation damage and transmutation calculations supplement these experiments. Compatibility work includes both thermal convection and pumped flow loop tests to examine temperature gradient mass transfer, as well as fatigue and tensile tests in contact with Hg. Based on the information developed for radiation effects and compatibility with mercury, our analysis indicates that the target will meet its intended service requirements. In the past year and one half the new issue of cavitation erosion has been included in the program. Both in-beam and laboratory experiments indicate that cavitation erosion may occur in the target. The highest priority activity is now to determine whether cavitation erosion will limit target lifetime to a level below the lifetime limit set by radiation effects.

R & D on mercury target pitting issue

A technical issue in mercury spallation target development is pitting, which appears on the target vessel in conjunction with the pressure wave. Pitting has been found in off-beam line test by split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) test as well as in the on-beam test of mercury target at WNR of LANSCE. In SHPB tests pressure in mercury was reduced from 80 to 40, 20 and 10 MPa. Specimens made of type 316 stainless steel were inspected before and after the impacting test at ×450 magnification. Results show that over 20 MPa pitting was generated. But at the lowest pressure in mercury, the number of pits was very limited and substantial damage was small. Substantial damage by pitting is characterized by holes where mass is removed from the wall. Depression itself may not be a substantial damage as long as it is not accompanied by holes.

Research Activities on Neutrorics under ASTE Collaboration at AGS/BNL

A series of experiments on a mercury spallation target using high-peak-power GeV proton-beam from the Alternating Gradient Synchrotron (AGS) of Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) has been performed under an international collaboration among the laboratories in Japan, U.S. and Europe, namely the ASTE (AGS Spallation Target Experiment) collaboration. This paper reviews the current status of the experiments on neutronic performance of the mercury target.

Current status of JAERI spallation target material program

In the joint project of spallation neutron source between JAERI and KEK, material technology has been developed for the mercury target in the neutron source facility, the lead–bismuth target in the transmutation test facility, superconducting accelerator, post-irradiation examination and the ion beam test. Design of target system is progressing for the mercury spallation target: a pressure test of moderator, an impacting test in mercury and a corrosion test have been carried out. For nuclear transmutation with ADS an engineering facility is proposed. A material corrosion test loop is built-up and SS316 and F82H steels are to be tested in a flowing Pb–Bi. Fracture toughness of superconducting cavity material was found to be considerably large at 4 K. Irradiated samples at SINQ are to be transported to JAERI Hot Laboratory. For simulating radiation damage small disk specimens were irradiated in single, dual and triple ion beam modes.