Mental Rotation Test Performance Research Articles

Effects of Various Caffeine Doses on Cognitive Abilities in Female Athletes with Low Caffeine Consumption.

Caffeine (CAF), a prevalent psychoactive stimulant, is believed to potentially enhance cognitive ability. However, studies on the effects of various doses are limited and yield inconsistent results, particularly in female athletes. Therefore, we aimed to assess the association between three different dosages of CAF intake (low, moderate, and high) and cognitive skills in female athletes with low CAF consumption. This study had a randomized, crossover, double-blind design in which each athlete performed four experimental sessions after ingesting either a placebo (PLAC), 3 mg·kg-1 of CAF (3 mg of CAF), 6 mg·kg-1 of CAF (6 mg of CAF), or 9 mg·kg-1 of CAF (9 mg of CAF) with an in-between washout period of at least 72 h. Following a 60 min window post-capsule consumption, fourteen female athletes (age: 17.4 ± 0.8 years) were assessed through various cognitive tests, namely, simple reaction time (SRT), choice reaction time (CRT), and attentional task (AT) tests, along with the mental rotation test (MRT). Additionally, they were required to complete a questionnaire about the undesirable side effects of CAF. Our results indicated that, compared to those of PLAC, the SRT, CRT, and AT performance were significantly improved following the administration of both 3 mg of CAF and 6 mg of CAF. While the greatest enhancement was observed after consuming 3 mg of CAF, no significant differences were found between the effects of 3 mg and 6 mg of CAF. Interestingly, MRT performance did not improve with any of the CAF dosages. Moreover, the ingestion of 9 mg of CAF did not enhance cognitive skills and was linked to the highest occurrence of CAF-related side effects. In conclusion, our results highlight the recommendation for a low CAF dosage of 3 mg·kg-1, in contrast to a higher dose of 6 mg·kg-1 or 9 mg·kg-1 of CAF, to enhance various aspects of cognitive performance in female athletes with low CAF consumption without adverse side effects.

Mental rotation with colored cube figures

Men usually outperform women in psychometric mental rotation tests with cube figures. This advantage could be pronounced due to the male stereotyped rotational objects. The present study aims to investigate whether gender differences in favor of men are absent when the stimuli are less male stereotyped. Therefore, 112 participants solved three psychometric mental rotation tests with cube figures colored in pink, blue, and grey. Men outperformed women independent of stimulus color. In the pink and the grey version of the test, participants with beliefs of spatial abilities as masculine performed better than those with feminine beliefs. The mental rotation test performance with pink figures was predicted by gender and gender stereotypes in spatial abilities. In the blue and grey version, gender and self-rated spatial abilities predicted the performance. It can be assumed that the stereotype activation by stimulus color was not sufficient to influence the performance.

Spatial anxiety mediates the sex difference in adult mental rotation test performance

Mental rotation ability is associated with successful advances in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education and occupations. Meta-analyses have shown consistent sex disparities in mental rotation, where men outperform women on one measure of mental rotation ability, the Mental Rotations Test (MRT). Spatial anxiety, or the fear and apprehension felt when completing a task that requires spatial thinking, was proposed as a mechanism explaining the relation between sex and mental rotation test performance. This study modified the Spatial Anxiety Scale (SAS) to include questions about how anxious individuals feel when they must mentally rotate items to accomplish a task (e.g., playing Tetris). An exploratory factor analysis was conducted to assess the factorial structure of the modified spatial anxiety scale. Three factor loadings were extracted representing the ability to navigate, mentally rotate objects, and visualize objects. Furthermore, we analyzed the role of spatial anxiety and trait anxiety as potential mediators of the relation between participant sex and mental rotation performance. Spatial anxiety partially mediated the link between the sex of the participants and the MRT performance controlling for trait anxiety. Only navigation and mental rotation anxiety significantly mediated the relation between participant sex and mental rotation performance. We posit spatial anxiety as a barrier to efficient and accurate spatial thinking, and suggest that reducing spatial anxiety has the potential to improve spatial skills and reduce sex differences in mental rotation test performance. To ascertain this, an experimental design can determine whether a reduction in spatial anxiety causes changes in mental rotation test scores.

Sex difference or hormonal difference in mental rotation? The influence of ovarian milieu

Sex differences in visuospatial cognition have long been reported, with men being advantaged on the Mental Rotations Test (MRT). The data, however, are variable, and sensitive to design parameters. When men and women are compared directly, with women in different hormonal milieus combined, there seem to be sex differences. When women alone are studied, taking into account different ovarian steroid concentrations and treatments, MRT performance varies with these changes. Indeed, several reports describe better performance among women with reduced estrogens. To better understand whether the sex difference in MRT persists once hormonal status is considered, we recruited reproductive age adults designated male and female at birth (MAB, FAB), and administered the Vandenberg-Kuse (V/K) MRT—comparing performance among MAB (n = 169) and FAB (n = 219). For FAB combined, we found a sex difference with MAB performing better than FAB. However, when FAB were analyzed by current menstrual cycle phase (Early Follicular (EF), Periovulatory (PO), Midluteal (ML)) or by hormone therapy (transmasculine testosterone administration (TM+), oral contraceptive (OC) ingestion prior to (OC+) or after cognitive testing (OC-)), low-estradiol groups (EF, OC-, TM+) performed as strongly as MAB, and had better MRT than cycling FAB in high-estradiol menstrual cycle phases (PO, ML). On a verbal memory control task, neither a sex difference nor a low estrogen advantage was detected, although performance varied with hormonal milieu. Our findings support a dynamic model of spatial performance and suggest that both MAB and FAB perform strongly on MRT, contingent on hormonal status.

Mental Rotation Test Performance in Brazilian and German Adolescents: The Role of Sex, Processing Speed, and Physical Activity in Two Different Cultures.

It was the main goal of this study to investigate performance on the mental rotation test (MRT) in Brazilian and German adolescents. Mental rotation is the ability to mentally transform a three-dimensional stimulus in mind and relates to science education. 60 German and 60 Brazilian adolescents (76 males and 44 females, 11–17 years) completed the Mental Rotation Test, a physical activity and media use questionnaire and a Number Connection Test. The result showed no difference between Brazilian and German adolescents in the cognitive processing speed measurement. German adolescents are more active and show a less media use compared to the Brazilian adolescents. Furthermore, German adolescents demonstrate a better MRT performance than Brazilian ones, as well as boys show a better performance than girls do. A multiple regression analysis indicated that the MRT performance could be predicted by nationality, sex, and cognitive processing speed. Since cognitive processing speed did not differ between Brazilian and German adolescents, the worse MRT performance of the Brazilian adolescents could be explained by different educational systems. Further studies have to follow which investigate the reasons for the different nations in more detail.

Effects of Group Gender Composition on Mental Rotation Test Performance in Women

Mental rotation is a task in which men outscore women by up to one standard deviation. Many biological, strategic, experiential, and motivational factors concur to explain this gender gap. Among these there are gender stereotypes, which could either harm or favor performance, giving rise, respectively, to stereotype threat or lift effects. This study examined effects due to stereotypes induced by testing women in a minority mixed-gender group composition (subtle message) when provided with instructions about men's or women's superiority (blatant message), in order to assess the hypothesis that the effort of disconfirming a negative stereotype causes increased performance when two messages, either blatant or subtle, are provided. Sixty-six men and 78 women tested either in a mixed-gender or a same-gender group composition were provided with one of the three instructions (men better, women better, nullifying) after performing a mental rotation test (baseline measure) and before taking another one. Results showed that women increased performance mainly when instructed that men score higher in the mixed-gender group composition, and after the nullifying instructions when tested in the same-gender group composition. Men increased performance mainly when they were instructed that women scored higher. Taken together, the results showed that both genders improve performance, when two threats arise both subtly and blatantly, or when no threat is in the air. Effects of implicit and explicit activated stereotypes are discussed.

Adults’ Sex Difference in a Dynamic Mental Rotation Task

Abstract. With the Mental Rotation Test (MRT), large and reliable sex differences are found. Used with children younger than about 9 or 10 years, MRT performance is at chance level. Simpler tasks used with younger children have revealed inconclusive results. Moore and Johnson (2008 , 2011 ) observed sex differences in infants using a habituation task with 3D cube figures rotating back and forth in depth through a 240° angle. Thereafter, female infants treated similarly the original figure and a mirror-image cube figure presented revolving through the previously unseen 120° angle, whereas male infants behaved as if they recognized the familiar object. In the present study, 256 adults participated in the MRT as well as in a modified two-alternative forced-choice dynamic version of the infants’ task. Sex differences were present for both tasks. More importantly, there was a positive correlation in performance across both tasks for both women and men. Since the new task turned out to be simpler, it might be suitable also for children. We present the first, although indirect, evidence that the sex effects reported by Moore and Johnson might indeed reflect early sex differences in mental rotation.

You Should Be the Specialist! Weak Mental Rotation Performance in Aviation Security Screeners - Reduced Performance Level in Aviation Security with No Gender Effect.

Aviation security screeners analyze a large number of X-ray images per day and seem to be experts in mentally rotating diverse kinds of visual objects. A robust gender-effect that men outperform women in the Vandenberg & Kuse mental rotation task has been well documented over the last years. In addition it has been shown that training can positively influence the overall task-performance. Considering this, the aim of the present study was to investigate whether security screeners show better performance in the Mental Rotation Test (MRT) independently of gender. Forty-seven security screeners of both sexes from two German airports were examined with a computer based MRT. Their performance was compared to a large sample of control subjects. The well-known gender-effect favoring men on mental rotation was significant within the control group. However, the security screeners did not show any sex differences suggesting an effect of training and professional performance. Surprisingly this specialized group showed a lower level of overall MRT performance than the control participants. Possible aviation related influences such as secondary effects of work-shift or expertise which can cumulatively cause this result are discussed.

Mental Rotation Test Performance of Chinese Male and Female University Students

The Mental Rotation Test (MRT) of spatial abilities has consistently produced large gender differences favoring males. Recent social changes in gender attitudes and gender roles have not diminished such differences. Of special interest is the finding that the MRT involves a spatial ability positively correlated with higher-level math ability; individuals who do well on the MRT also tend to score high on standardized test of mathematics. In our previous studies using a GRE Math Subject Practice Test, we had found a lack of gender differences in math for Chinese college students. At the same time, we found an over-representation of males among physics and computer sciences majors in Chinese colleges. These findings lead to an obvious question regarding gender differences in spatial ability, especially the MRT among Chinese students. The present study was conducted to obtain MRT data from the same population of Chinese college students used in our earlier math studies. We found male Chinese students scored significantly higher than their female counterparts on the MRT.

Comparing the efficacy of varying learning modalities for computer‐based education in anatomy

We sought to identify whether online material is comparable to traditional lab-based study with anatomical specimens. Fifty-three university students with no experience in anatomy were tested. Subjects first completed the Vandenberg Mental Rotations Test (MRT), and then studied the anatomy of the pelvis from one of three stations: a plastic model (n=18), photographs of the same model (n=18) or a 3D interactive computer-generated (n=17). Subjects were given 10 minutes to study and a limitless amount of time to complete a quiz consisting of 15 nominal questions and ten functional questions. All subjects were tested using a wet specimen of the pelvis. There was a significant correlation between MRT scores and performance on nominal questions (r = 0.6, p<0.01), and between MRT score and performance on functional questions (r=0.3; p<0.05). Subjects learning using the plastic model performed significantly better on nominal questions (p<0.05). No differences were observed in performance on functional questions. We conclude that tangible models are invaluable tools for learning nominal anatomy, and 3D computer images fail to match their efficacy. The effectiveness of 2D pictures is yet to be elucidated. Grant Funding Source: Education Program in Anatomy

Are There Sex Differences in the Genetic and Environmental Effects on Mental Rotation Ability?

Probably the most robust sex difference in cognitive abilities is that on average males outperform females in tests of mental rotation. Using twin data we tested whether there are sex differences in the magnitude of genetic and environmental effects on mental rotation test performance and whether the same or different genetic effects operate in females and males. The present study replicated the well-known male advantage in mental rotation ability. The relative proportion of variance explained by genetic effects did not differ between females and males, but interestingly, absolute additive genetic and unique environmental variances were greater in males reflecting significantly greater phenotypic variance in mental rotation test performance in males. Over half of the variance in mental rotation test performance was explained by genetic effects, which suggest that mental rotation ability is a good phenotype for studies finding genes underlying spatial abilities. Results indicate that females and males could be combined for such genetic studies, because the same genetic effects affected mental rotation test performance in females and males.

Having a Male Co-Twin Masculinizes Mental Rotation Performance in Females

Probably the most robust cognitive sex difference is that, on average, males outperform females in tests of mental rotation ability (Voyer, Voyer, & Bryden, 1995). This sex difference is evident across many different cultures (Silverman, Choi, & Peters, 2007), and it appears early in infancy, at 3 to 5 months of age (Moore & Johnson, 2008; Quinn & Liben, 2008). Studies have suggested that elevated levels of fluctuating testosterone are associated with better spatial abilities among females, whereas in males, lower fluctuating testosterone levels relate to better spatial abilities (Gouchie & Kimura, 1991; Moffat & Hampson, 1996). In persons with congenital adrenal hyperplasia, which usually affects the production of sex steroids, the organizational effects of elevated prenatal testosterone may account for improved spatial test performance in females and impaired spatial test performance in males (Puts, McDaniel, Jordan, & Breedlove, 2008). Moreover, a positive relationship between mental rotation test (MRT) performance and prenatal testosterone has been reported in healthy girls (Grimshaw, Sitarenios, & Finegan, 1995). Animal studies have shown that female fetuses located adjacent to male fetuses in the uterus can be masculinized through prenatal exposure to testosterone (Ryan & Vandenbergh, 2002). In humans, prenatal masculinization can be studied by comparing female twins from opposite-sex twin pairs with female twins from same-sex pairs. Sisters of twin brothers have been reported to be masculinized in physiological traits, including maternal fitness (Lummaa, Pettay, & Russell, 2007) and second-to-fourth-finger ratio (van Anders, Vernon, & Wilbur, 2006), but other studies have not demonstrated the same results (Medland, Loehlin, & Martin, 2008; Medland, Loehlin, Willemsen, et al., 2008). One commonly cited study concerns mental rotation ability in female twins from opposite- and same-sex pairs (Cole-Harding, Morstad, & Wilson, 1988); however, this study was published only as a meeting abstract. In the study reported here, we assessed masculinization effects on MRT performance among female twins with male co-twins by comparing their performance with that of female twins with female co-twins. We also investigated whether or not there are differences in MRT performance between males with female co-twins and males with male co-twins.

Beyond genetics in Mental Rotation Test performance: The power of effort attribution

This study compares the effects on Mental Rotation Test (MRT) performance of instructions that stress the importance of (a) personal effort, and (b) genetically driven ability. A total of 120 high-school students were assigned to three groups, and administered two sub-tests of the MRT. Between the first and second sub-tests, the groups received one of the following instructions: effort (“anyone can succeed in this task by putting in effort”), ability (“performance on the test depends on genetic determinants”), and neutral for control (“this is an important test used in many countries”). We predicted that effort but not ability instructions would affect performance. Results confirmed the prediction and showed that, after controlling for baseline performance, the effort group outperformed the ability and control groups, which did not differ from each other. Discussion focuses on the mechanisms implied in believing ability to be genetically determined or experientially driven.

Factors Influencing the Development of Mental-Rotation Ability The Role of Socio-Cultural Background

It is hypothesized that the fact whether female and male students were socialized in East or West Germany influences their development of spatial ability differently. In this study 357 students from a West German University (Koblenz) and an East German University (Magdeburg) majoring either in computational visualization (CV) or in non-technical fields (NTF) were examined with the Mental-Rotation Test (MRT). In addition they completed questionnaires on experiences and attitudes related to spatial abilities. At both universities males scored higher on MRT than females and CV students higher than NTF students. However, there were significant interactions between major and gender, and major and university. Males and females, students of different majors and from both universities also differed in their ability-related self-concept, in relevant experiences, in attitudes towards math and physics, and in gender-role attitudes. Linear regression analyses revealed that different attitudinal and experiential variables predict MRT performance in male and female students and that the variance explained by them is higher in females than in males. Our results support the “biological-environmental-interactionist” approach of gender differences in spatial abilities.

Enhancement of Mental Rotation Abilities and Its Effect on Anatomy Learning

Background: Mental rotation (MR) is improved through practice and high MR ability is correlated to success in anatomy learning. Purposes: We investigated the effects of improving the MR ability on the Vandenberg and Kuse MR test performance and the consequences on learning functional human anatomy. Methods: Forty-eight students were assigned into three groups: MR group (16 students attending functional anatomy course and MR training), anatomy group (16 students attending the same functional anatomy course), and the control group (n = 16). Instead of MR training, the latter 2 groups were engaged in physical activities for an equivalent time, and the control group did not attend anatomy course. Results: MR group performed better than the two others in the MR test and better than the anatomy group in the anatomy test. Conclusions: The MR training sessions were found to improve MR test performance and were further transferred to anatomy learning.

Endogenous testosterone levels, mental rotation performance, and constituent abilities in middle-to-older aged men

Evidence from both human and animal studies suggests that gonadal steroids, such as testosterone, exert activational effects on adult spatial behavior. Endogenous testosterone levels decline gradually but variably as men age; it remains to be shown whether these decreases are associated with age-related declines in visuo-spatial performance or constituent abilities indicative of generalized age-related cognitive decline. Ninety-six healthy, community dwelling men aged between 38 and 69 years completed the Vandenberg and Kuse Mental Rotation Test (MRT) together with a battery of tests including processing speed, executive function, perceptual discrimination, working memory, and reaction time measures. Significant main effects of tertiles of calculated free testosterone levels (cEFT) were found on composite measures of processing speed, executive function, and perceptual discrimination ability in a subset of men aged over 50 years in age and crystallized intelligence controlled analyses; higher cEFT levels were associated with poorer performance. Hierarchical multiple regression and path analyses on the whole data set showed that cEFT levels negatively moderated processing speed performance, which in turn predicted both working memory and MRT performance with aging. Together these data suggest that age-related declines in endogenous testosterone levels in healthy middle-to-older aged men are not associated with generalized age-related cognitive decline.

Visual–spatial ability and fMRI cortical activation in surgery residents

Background We previously reported that a particular type of visual–spatial ability, mental rotation of visual forms, correlates with surgical performance in residents. In the current study, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to identify patterns of cortical activation associated with mental rotation ability in those same residents. Methods Seventeen surgery residents underwent fMRI scan while performing a mental rotations test (MRT) and a perceptual matching task as a control (CON) for nonimagery components, such as visual attention. A contrast analysis (MRT greater than CON) revealed cortical regions engaged during mental rotation by all participants, and parametric statistical analysis identified regions having the strongest association with MRT performance. Results Significant bilateral (left greater than right) activation was seen in all participants for rotation-versus-perceptual CON contrast. Better MRT performance was associated with greater activation in several cortical regions related to visual imagery and motion processing. Comments Surgery residents represent a unique population in which to study individual differences in visual–spatial abilities and associated neural substrates because they may relate to technical skills. These findings suggest that variation in performance on spatially complex tasks involving imagery may reflect different spatial problem-solving strategies in surgery students.

Mental Rotation Test Performance in Four Cross-Cultural Samples (N = 3367): Overall Sex Differences and the Role of Academic Program in Performance

Two meta-analyses (Linn and Petersen, 1985; Voyer et al., 1995) discuss variables that affect mental rotation performance but they do not mention a potentially important variable, the Academic Program in which students are enrolled. Sex differences in brain size have been related to sex differences in spatial performance (e.g., Falk et al., 1999) and thus it is important to know whether mental rotation performance shows a significant interaction between Sex and Academic Program. To put our understanding of the Academic Program effect on a firmer empirical footing, we conducted a large scale multicultural study, with samples from Canada, Germany and Japan, using identical test procedures in all studies. Significant main effects for Sex and Academic Program were found in all four studies, with large effect sizes for Sex and medium to large effect sizes for Academic Program (based on Cohen's d). No significant interactions between these variables were found in the four samples. Our demonstration of a reliable Academic Program effect has clear and important pragmatic implications for a broad range of work on spatial ability and its interpretation.

Following the instructions!: Effects of gender beliefs in mental rotation

Research has widely demonstrated male superiority in the Mental Rotation Test (MRT). Various explanations have been put forward to account for these differences. We considered gender beliefs and argued that women may fare less well than men partly because they are considered unable to perform this kind of task. Beliefs about spatial ability were experimentally manipulated in samples of 107 female and of 90 male high-school students, divided into three groups, following the instructions: men are better, women are better, general (with no gender reference). Our data show that women who expect to be more able than men and men who expect to be more able than women outperformed their counterparts. MRT performance fell for those expecting to be less able. The effects of induced beliefs on cognitive performance are stressed, particularly in the educational context.

The relationship between computer-game preference, gender, and mental-rotation ability

This study examined how computer-game preference relates to mental-rotation test (MRT) performance and to gender differences. Subjects were 861 German secondary-school children (mean age = 14.67; range 10–20 years). Latent class analysis with the data of a computer-game preference scale revealed three types of players: “non-players”, “action-and-simulation game players” and “logic-and-skill-training game players”. Large gender differences were found with respect to class assignment. More females than males were found in the “logic-and-skill-training game player” class (82.9%) and in the class of “non-players” (81.9%). Males in contrast were overrepresented (81.7%) in the class of “action-and-simulation game players”. As expected, males on average outperformed females in mental-rotation test performance ( d = 0.63). Furthermore, ANOVA results indicated mean differences in mental-rotation ability between action-and-simulation players and non-players (partial η 2 = .01) as well as age differences (partial η 2 = .04). With boys, non-players on average had lower MRT scores than action-and-simulation game players. For females, computer-game preference was unrelated to MRT performance. Results are discussed within a nature–nurture-interactionist framework of gender differences in spatial abilities.