Mental Rotation Performance Research Articles

Cross-modal facilitation of mental rotation: Effects of modality and complexity

Performance in a visual mental rotation (MR) task has been reported to predict the ability to recognize retrograde-transformed melodies. The current study investigated the effects of melodic structure on the MR of sequentially presented visual patterns. Each trial consisted of a five-segment sequentially presented visual pattern (standard) followed by a five-tone melody that was either identical in structure to the standard or its retrograde. A visual target pattern was either the rotated version of the standard or unrelated to it. The task was to indicate whether the target pattern was a rotated version of the standard or not. Periodic patterns were not rotated but melodies facilitated the rotation of non-periodic patterns. For these, rotation latency was determined by a quantitative index of complexity (number of runs). This study provides the first experimental confirmation for cross-modal facilitation of MR.

The role of motor processes in three-dimensional mental rotation: Shaping cognitive processing via sensorimotor experience

An extensive body of literature has explored the involvement of motor processes in mental rotation, yet underlying individual differences are less documented and remain to be fully understood. We propose that sensorimotor experience shapes spatial abilities such as assessed in mental rotation tasks. Elite wrestlers' and non-athletes' mental rotation accuracy and response times were measured in three different conditions: mental rotation (a), mental rotation with visual (b) and movement (c) interference. Results showed that both groups were equally affected by the visual interference task, as hypothesized from previous literature. However, the movement interference task impacted tremendously more wrestlers' mental rotation performance. These findings suggest that experts in motor activities rely heavily on motor processes in three-dimensional mental rotation problems solving, thus performing more poorly when simultaneously holding movements. The implications of this work in providing further evidence for the close tie between perceptive, motor and cognitive processes are discussed.

Gender-specific effects of artificially induced gender beliefs in mental rotation

Men outperform women in the Mental Rotation Test (MRT) by about one standard deviation. The present study replicated a gender belief account [Moè, A., & Pazzaglia, F. (2006). Following the instructions! Effects of gender beliefs in mental rotation. Learning and Individual Differences, 16, 369–377.] for (part of) this effect. A sample of 300 adults, whose gender beliefs about mental rotation were manipulated experimentally (instructions given: men are better, women are better, or no gender differences exist) had to complete the MRT. Artificially induced gender beliefs affected performance and guessing behavior differently in relation to gender. Women's performance followed the gender belief induction but their guessing behavior remained unaffected. Men's performance, however, remained unaffected but their guessing behavior followed the gender belief induction. These findings suggest that gender beliefs affect men and women differently, and they also suggest that a gender belief account cannot (fully) explain gender differences in mental rotation performance.

Sex differences in mental rotation and cortical activation patterns: Can training change them?

In two experiments the neuronal mechanisms of sex differences in mental rotation were investigated. In Experiment 1 cortical activation was studied in women and men with similar levels of mental rotation ability (high, and average to low), who were equalized with respect to general intelligence. Sex difference in neuroelectric patterns of brain activity were observed only in participants with high mental rotation ability. Females displayed more theta synchronization, especially in frontal brain areas. In the second experiment we examined whether training can increase mental rotation performance in females and change their brain activity patterns measured with neuroelectric and hemodynamic imaging techniques. In a parallel group experimental design, respondents from the origami group (rotation training), after 18h of training, significantly increased their performance on a test of mental rotation. Females' brain activation patterns on a posttest, as compared with a pretest, showed decreased frontal brain activity. Parallel to this, increased activity in parietal brain areas was observed. By contrast, respondents from the active control group (participating in 18-hour communication training) showed no improvements in performance and no pre-/posttest differences in cortical activity.

A Threat in the Classroom

Females’ performance in a gender-stereotyped domain is impaired when negative gender stereotypes are activated (Nguyen & Ryan, 2008). “Stereotype threat” affects the gender difference in adults’ mental-rotation performance (e.g., Moè & Pazzaglia, 2006). Our study investigated this effect in fourth graders. Two hundred sixteen males and females solved two mental-rotation tests. In between, a gender-difference instruction was given (“boys better,” “girls better,” “no gender difference”). A significant interaction of time and gender was found in the “girls better”-condition and in the “no gender difference”-condition: As expected, the male performance advantage disappeared after these two instructions, because girls improved and boys deteriorated. Thus, the study suggests that the gender effect in mental rotation is affected by stereotype threat and stereotype lift from the very beginning of its occurrence. Results are discussed within a biopsychosocial framework and seem to play an important role with regard to the “hidden curriculum” in schools.

Sex and Gender Differences

Sex and gender are among the most heavily investigated interindividual factors in all areas of psychology. Although sex and gender have been studied for more than a hundred years, there has been an explosion of theories and research in this area in the past several years. Whether psychological differences between men and women truly exist, and where they originate, is still under debate. Although the majority of experts would deny that sex and gender differences in mind and behavior are either purely biological or purely social in origin, it seems that the proportions attributable to nature and nurture are still being negotiated. New research takes into account biological and social factors, as well as the interaction between them, and addresses ‘‘the small difference’’ within a psychobiosocial approach. This topical issue integrates research on sex and gender differences from various psychological disciplines and emphasizes a psychobiosocial approach as a promising new perspective in this field. In January 2005, Larry Summers, then president of Harvard University, gave a speech at the ‘‘Diversifying the Science and Engineering Workforce’’ conference held by the National Bureau of Economic Research in Cambridge, MA, that elicited a political and social earthquake. In his attempt to answer the question why women are underrepresented in top academic careers, he offered three potential explanations: (1) He argued that more young mothers than fathers are unwilling to spend 80 hr per week at work. (2) More boys than girls tend to be at the highest or lowest end of mathematical performance in high schools. Although boys and girls do not show significant differences in mean mathematical performance, a higher proportion of boys reveal extremely high mathematical aptitude, which might explain why women are underrepresented in the upper echelons of academic and professional life. (3) Finally, Summers admitted that discrimination at universities exists, including at Harvard University, but this may be less relevant because women are already underrepresented below the top level of academic leadership. His second point especially not only led to many attendees indignantly leaving the hall, but also revived a worldwide debate. Is there empirical evidence for ‘‘innate’’ sex differences in cognitive abilities? Is there new empirical support for a biological basis for cognitive differences between men and women? What are the social factors that elicit or promote sex and gender differences? Although a lot of research has been done on these issues, many questions remain unanswered and an appraisal of new perspectives and new findings thus appears necessary from time to time (see, e.g., Schober, Reimann, & Wagner, 2004). In light of this, the present topical issue ‘‘Sex and Gender Differences Revisited – New Perspectives and New Findings’’, on the one hand, contains contemporary studies of sex differences in specific cognitive variables, focusing on some relevant biological and social factors underlying the ‘‘small difference,’’ and, on the other hand, presents new findings on mechanisms behind gender differences from more applied research on education, work, and science. Finally, it includes two opinion papers with the explicit aim of discussing new perspectives and possible reconciliations between very different research approaches to sex and gender. Cognitive tests favoring men mainly include specific mathematical and spatial problems such as mental rotation, an ability that involves the ability to imagine and mentally manipulate 3D objects. Because mental rotation is particularly sex-sensitive so that men outperform women with effect sizes up to one standard deviation, sex differences in mental rotation are the focus of various psychological approaches. Neuburger, Jansen, Heil, and Quaiser-Pohl (2012) focus on gender stereotypes and their effects on mental rotation performance in primary school children. Gender stereotype effects on cognitive abilities in general, and mental rotation in particular, have been reported before (e.g., Hausmann, Schoofs, Rosenthal, & Jordan, 2009). It has remained

Enhancing Spatial Ability Through Sport Practice

This experiment investigated the relationship between mental rotation and sport training. Undergraduate university students (n = 62) completed the Mental Rotation Test ( Vandenberg & Kuse, 1978 ), before and after a 10-month training in two different sports, which either involved extensive mental rotation ability (wrestling group) or did not (running group). Both groups showed comparable results in the pretest, but the wrestling group outperformed the running group in the posttest. As expected from previous studies, males outperformed women in the pretest and the posttest. Besides, self-reported data gathered after both sessions indicated an increase in adaptive strategies following training in wrestling, but not subsequent to training in running. These findings demonstrate the significant effect of training in particular sports on mental rotation performance, thus showing consistency with the notion of cognitive plasticity induced from motor training involving manipulation of spatial representations. They are discussed within an embodied cognition framework.

Different mental rotation performance in students of music, sport and education

In this study the effect of long-term physical and musical activity on spatial cognitive performance, measured by mental rotation performance, is investigated in detail. Mental rotation performance is the ability to rotate a three-dimensional object using the imagination. Three groups, each consisting of 40 students, and divided by the subjects, music, sports, and education, solved a psychometrical mental rotation task with three-dimensional block figures. The results showed a better mental rotation performance for music and sports students compared to the education students. Furthermore, the well known gender difference favoring males was found for both sports and education students but not for music students.

Confidence Mediates the Sex Difference in Mental Rotation Performance

On tasks that require the mental rotation of 3-dimensional figures, males typically exhibit higher accuracy than females. Using the most common measure of mental rotation (i.e., the Mental Rotations Test), we investigated whether individual variability in confidence mediates this sex difference in mental rotation performance. In each of four experiments, the sex difference was reliably elicited and eliminated by controlling or manipulating participants' confidence. Specifically, confidence predicted performance within and between sexes (Experiment 1), rendering confidence irrelevant to the task reliably eliminated the sex difference in performance (Experiments 2 and 3), and manipulating confidence significantly affected performance (Experiment 4). Thus, confidence mediates the sex difference in mental rotation performance and hence the sex difference appears to be a difference of performance rather than ability. Results are discussed in relation to other potential mediators and mechanisms, such as gender roles, sex stereotypes, spatial experience, rotation strategies, working memory, and spatial attention.

Gender difference does not mean genetic difference: Externalizing improves performance in mental rotation

The fear of underperforming owing to stereotype threat affects women's performance in tasks such as mathematics, chess, and spatial reasoning. The present research considered mental rotation and explored effects on performance and on regulatory focus of instructions pointing to different explanations for gender differences. Two hundred and one participants were asked to perform the Mental Rotation Test (MRT) and were told that men perform better than women. Then they were divided into four sub-groups and provided with no additional information (control condition) or one of three explanations: (a) genetic factors, (b) widely-held stereotype, or (c) time limit. A decrease in performance was predicted for the genetic instruction and an increase for the two alternative explanations based on externalizing. Results showed that both women and men are harmed by the genetic explanation and relieved by both the stereotype and the time limit explanations. Explanations stressing genetics and time limit as factors affecting performance favor prevention focus.

A key role for experimental task performance: Effects of math talent, gender and performance on the neural correlates of mental rotation

The neurophysiological mechanisms underlying superior cognitive performance are a research area of high interest. The majority of studies on the brain–performance relationship assessed the effects of capability-related group factors (e.g. talent, gender) on task-related brain activations while only few studies examined the effect of the inherent experimental task performance factor. In this functional MRI study, we combined both approaches and simultaneously assessed the effects of three relatively independent factors on the neurofunctional correlates of mental rotation in same-aged adolescents: math talent (gifted/controls: 17/17), gender (male/female: 16/18) and experimental task performance (median split on accuracy; high/low: 17/17). Better experimental task performance of mathematically gifted vs. control subjects and male vs. female subjects validated the selected paradigm. Activation of the inferior parietal lobule (IPL) was identified as a common effect of mathematical giftedness, gender and experimental task performance. However, multiple linear regression analyses (stepwise) indicated experimental task performance as the only predictor of parietal activations. In conclusion, increased activation of the IPL represents a positive neural correlate of mental rotation performance, irrespective of but consistent with the obtained neurocognitive and behavioral effects of math talent and gender. As experimental performance may strongly affect task-related activations this factor needs to be considered in capability-related group comparison studies on the brain–performance relationship.

Real Three-Dimensional Objects: Effects on Mental Rotation

The current experiment investigated real three-dimensional (3D) objects with regard to performance on a mental rotation task and whether the appearance of sex differences may be mediated by experiences with spatially related activities. 40 men and 40 women were presented with alternating timed trials consisting of real-3D objects or two-dimensional illustrations of 3D objects. Sex differences in spatially related activities did not significantly influence the finding that men outperformed women on mental rotation of either stimulus type. However, on measures related to spatial activities, self-reported proficiency using maps correlated positively with performance only on trials with illustrations whereas self-reported proficiency using GPS correlated negatively with performance regardless of stimulus dimensionality. Findings may be interpreted as suggesting that rotating real-3D objects utilizes distinct but overlapping spatial skills compared to rotating two-dimensional representations of 3D objects, and real-3D objects can enhance mental rotation performance.

Effects of hormonal contraceptives on mental rotation and verbal fluency

Cognitive abilities, such as verbal fluency and mental rotation, are most sensitive to changes in sex steroids but poorly studied in the context of hormonal contraceptive usage. Therefore, we investigated the performance of mental rotation and verbal fluency in young (21.5±1.8 years) healthy oral contraceptive (OC) users (23 women) and non-users (20 women) during the follicular, ovulatory and luteal phases of the menstrual cycle. Salivary 17β-estradiol, progesterone and testosterone levels were assayed to evaluate hormonal differences between groups and the phases of the menstrual cycle. To assess the effects of progestins having androgenic/anti-androgenic properties, OC users were subdivided into the third and new generation OC users. In addition, positive and negative affects as factors possibly affecting cognitive performance were evaluated. Salivary 17β-estradiol and progesterone levels were significantly lower in hormonal contraception users. Level of salivary testosterone was slightly lower in the OC users group with significant difference only during ovulatory phase. Naturally cycling women performed better on verbal fluency task as compared to OC users. Subjects who used the third generation (androgenic) OCs generated significantly fewer words as compared to new generation (anti-androgenic) OC users and non-users. The third generation OC users demonstrated significantly longer RT in MRT task as compared to non-users. The MRT, verbal fluency and mood parameters did not depend on the phase of menstrual cycle. The parameters of the PANAS (Positive and Negative Affect Schedule) scales did not differ between OC users and non-users. Our findings show that hormonal contraception has an impact on verbal and spatial abilities. Different performances between users of oral contraceptives with androgenic and anti-androgenic properties suggest an essential role for the progestins contained in OCs on cognitive performance.

Impaired mental rotation performance in overweight children

Overweight children seem to have cognitive impairment. Since there is a relationship between motor and visual-spatial ability and because of the reduced motor abilities of overweight children we assumed that these children might show an impaired mental rotation performance. Sixteen overweight children (10 years of age) and 16 control children (10 years of age) were matched by age, gender, and socio-economic status. Each participant completed a general intelligence test, a motor test, and a chronometric mental rotation test. The results show differences in both motor ability and mental rotation accuracy. Overweight children made more errors when the rotation task was difficult compared to normal weight children. This study gives a clue to overweight children's problems in spatial cognitive tasks.

Gender differences in pre-adolescents’ mental-rotation performance: Do they depend on grade and stimulus type?

In psychometric mental-rotation tasks, adult male participants usually outperform females. A large body of evidence suggests that this effect is reliable, quite stable over lifespan and one of the largest cognitive gender differences. However, there are controversial findings regarding the age in which the male advantage emerges. The present study aimed at contributing to a systematic developmental research of mental rotation by examining two grades and three stimulus types in order to determine how these variables influence the gender difference. Second and fourth graders ( n = 432) were tested with a paper–pencil mental-rotation task in three stimulus conditions (animal pictures, letters, cube figures). Whereas fourth graders showed a small, but significant, stimulus-independent gender difference favoring males, there was no effect of gender on the mental-rotation performance of second graders. Fourth-grade boys performed better than second-grade boys in all stimulus conditions. Fourth-grade girls, in contrast, outperformed second-grade girls in the animal pictures condition and the letters condition, but not in the cube-figures condition. Results are discussed with regard to implications for causal mechanisms underlying the gender difference in mental rotation.

Mental rotation does not account for sex differences in left–right confusion

Several studies have demonstrated that women believe they are more prone to left–right confusion (LRC) than men. However, while some studies report that there is also a sex difference in LRC tasks favouring men, others report that men and women perform equally well. Recently, it was suggested that sex differences only emerge in LRC tasks when they involve mental rotation. That is, sex differences that are reported for some LRC tasks are strongly affected by the well-documented male advantage in mental rotation. To test this assumption, 91 participants were investigated on two LRC tasks: The Left–Right Commands Task and the Bergen Left–Right Discrimination Test. Additionally, participants were asked to complete an LRC self-rating questionnaire. To rule out the possibility that sex differences in LRC are confounded by sex differences in mental rotation, male and female participants were matched for mental rotation performance, resulting in a sample of 46 matched participants. These matched participants showed robust sex differences in favour of men in all LRC measurements. This suggests that pronounced sex differences in LRC are a genuine phenomenon that exists independently of sex differences in mental rotation.

The influence of juggling on mental rotation performance in children

The influence of juggling on mental rotation performance in children Study aim: To assess the influence of juggling training on mental rotation performance in children. Material and methods: Two groups of girls aged 6 - 14 years were studied: experimental (EG; n = 26) and control (CG; n = 24). All girls solved a mental rotation task with 3-D block figures on computer screen (pre-test). After the initial test, EG girls participated in juggling training for 3 months; the CG girls participated in light strength training with theraband stretch bands. After 3 months, all girls solved the mental rotation task again (post-test). The post-pre differences in the mental rotation performance were recorded. Results: Children who learned juggling performed the mental rotation task significantly (p<0.05 - 0.01) faster, in terms of reaction time, at non-zero angular disparity than their mates who were strength-trained. Conclusions: Since mental rotation skills enhance spatial imagination, problem solving and mathematical skills, it may be assumed that juggling training enhances also other cognitive domains and is worth implementing in the education process.

Mental rotation in female fraternal twins: Evidence for intra-uterine hormone transfer?

Men outperform women in mental rotation by about one standard deviation. Prenatal exposure to testosterone has been suggested as one cause. In animals it has been shown that a female fetus located between two male ones is exposed to higher levels of testosterone. It is still unclear whether intra-uterine hormone transfer exists in humans. Therefore, the influence of an intra-uterine presence of a male co twin was studied in female fraternal twins ( N = 200). Women with a male co-twin outperformed women with a female co-twin by about a third standard deviation. In a no-twin control group ( N = 200), performance of women with a slightly older sibling did not depend upon the sibling's sex. These findings provide preliminary support for the theory of an influence of prenatal testosterone on mental rotation performance.

The Mental Rotation of Objects Presented in an Underwater Environment

Fifty-Six undergraduates completed a series of mental rotation exercises involving levels of underwater spatial mental model activation. The mental rotation exercises were performed after achieving ninety percent accuracy on a brief training exercise. It tested whether underwater experience had an effect on mental rotation performance. Same/different responses were measured using reaction time and accuracy. Results indicated differences based on background, stimulus type, position, and or gender. Future studies will explore types of training to alleviate the differences found in the current study.

Associations between the tumor necrosis factor alpha gene (-308G→A) and event-related potential indices of attention and mental rotation

The tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) is a cytokine that exerts neuroprotective and neurodegenerative effects. While some research suggests enhancing effects of the TNF-α gene (TNF-α -308G→A) on cognitive function, further research is needed to clarify the association between the TNF-α gene and specific areas of cognitive performance including their neurophysiological correlates. In this study we examine association of the TNF-α -308G→A single nucleotide polymorphism (rs1800629) with attention and mental rotation performance in an event-related potential (ERP) study in healthy participants (n=67). The results show that carriers of the -308 A allele display elevated attentional processes (i.e. a stronger N1) as compared to the GG genotype group. Mental rotation performance varied across genotypes when demands on mental rotation were high. Here, carriers of the -308 A allele performed better than the GG genotype group. This is paralleled by the neurophysiological data showing genotype-dependent variations in parietal positivities only under the condition of high demands on mental rotation. The finding of enhanced attentional and mental rotation performance in A allele carriers supports recent findings that the A allele of this single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) enhances cognitive performance on a general measure of cognitive processing speed.