Mental Arithmetic Challenge Research Articles

Beyond HIV Shame: Effects of Self-Forgiveness in Improving Mental Health in HIV-Positive Individuals in Poland.

Guided by the bio-psycho-socio-spiritual approach, this randomized controlled trial assessed the efficacy of a self-forgiveness intervention among 60 HIV-positive individuals in Poland. Participants underwent a 90-min "Restore: The Journey Toward Self-Forgiveness" session, in contrast to a wait-list control group. The intervention significantly enhanced self-forgiveness, spirituality, mental well-being, and heart rate variability in response to a cognitive stressor (i.e., a mental arithmetic challenge). Significant effects were observed in both between-group and within-subject comparisons. These results support the incorporation of self-forgiveness into psychological rehabilitation programs for HIV to improve quality of life and health outcomes.

Stress-induced analgesia: an evaluation of effects on temporal summation of pain and the role of endogenous opioid mechanisms.

Acute stress reduces responses to static evoked pain stimuli (stress-induced analgesia [SIA]). Whether SIA inhibits temporal summation of pain, a dynamic evoked pain measure indexing central sensitization, has been little studied and mechanisms were not evaluated. We tested whether acute laboratory stressors reduce temporal summation and whether endogenous opioid (EO) mechanisms contributed. Participants were 72 healthy individuals who attended 2 laboratory sessions, receiving either oral naltrexone (50 mg; opioid antagonist) or placebo (randomized, counterbalanced order). In each session, participants underwent a temporal summation protocol with evoked heat pain stimuli, once after extended rest and once after experiencing 2 acute stressors (public speaking and mental arithmetic challenge). Reduced temporal summation in the stress/pain relative to rest/pain condition indexed SIA. Analyses in the placebo condition indicated significant SIA on initial pain ratings but not temporal summation slope (index of central sensitization). This SIA effect was moderated by stress reactivity, with SIA only observed in high stress responders. Analyses comparing SIA across the drug conditions did not reveal any evidence of stress-related EO inhibition of temporal summation outcomes. Moderation analyses revealed that high, but not low, stress responders exhibited paradoxical analgesic effects of naltrexone on initial pain ratings but not temporal summation slopes. Independent of stress effects, significant EO inhibition of temporal summation slopes was observed, but only in females. Results suggest that acute stress may reduce initial ratings in temporal summation protocols via nonopioid mechanisms but does not alter the temporal summation slope commonly used to index central sensitization.

Loneliness and cardiovascular reactivity to acute stress in older adults.

Loneliness has been linked to cardiovascular health outcomes in older adulthood. One proposed mechanism by which loneliness influences cardiovascular health is through atypical cardiovascular reactivity (CVR) to stress. This study is an examination of loneliness and CVR in older adults, comparing associations across two stressors and two commonly used measures of loneliness, with a particular focus on underlying hemodynamic variables including cardiac output, total peripheral resistance, and ejection time (EJT). Eighty older adults, ranging in age from 55 to 88 years (M = 68.93, SD = 8.28), completed two versions of the UCLA loneliness scale (a 20‐item and a briefer, three‐item) and took part in a laboratory stress‐testing procedure which included a mental arithmetic challenge and a public speaking task. Cardiovascular activity was monitored continuously throughout. For the 20‐item version of the UCLA loneliness scale, loneliness was not significantly related to CVR, and was only significantly associated with lower levels of overall EJT. For the three‐item version of the UCLA, no associations withstood adjustment for multiple testing. Loneliness was not reliably associated with CVR. Further, although greater loneliness was related to lower levels of overall EJT, this was only observed for the 20‐item scale. The findings do not strongly provide support for reactivity to acute stress as a pathway linking loneliness to disease outcomes, and highlight key methodological issues related to the assessment of loneliness‐reactivity associations for future.

Stress and pain: modality-specific opioid mediation of stress-induced analgesia.

Preclinical research has demonstrated that exposure to acute stress is associated with attenuated pain perception, so called stress-induced analgesia (SIA). Mechanisms of SIA in humans have not been reliably demonstrated. This study examined the role of the endogenous opioid system in the impact of combined interpersonal and mental stressors on evoked pain responses in 84 participants (34 women). Using a within-subject, double-blinded, counterbalanced design, participants were administered either oral placebo or the opioid antagonist naltrexone (50mg) across two testing sessions. In each session, they experienced two evoked pain stimuli (cold pressor test [CPT], heat pain) after an extended rest period (rest condition) and after exposure to an acute stressor (a combination of public speaking and mental arithmetic challenge; stress condition). Results showed that both stress and opioid blockade produced significant changes in hormonal and cardiovascular measures, consistent with successful induction of acute stress. Stress was associated with attenuated pain perception (SIA) as indicated by significantly increased CPT tolerance. These effects were particularly pronounced in individuals experiencing the stress condition first. More importantly, SIA effects on CPT tolerance were abolished by opioid blockade. There were no significant SIA effects on heat pain responses. This study demonstrates that the endogenous opioid system may mediate effects of acute stress on pain perception, although this effect seems to be qualified by the type of evoked pain stimuli experienced.

Influences of Fasting on Stress Response and Withdrawal Symptoms in Habitual Khat Users

Background: Fasting changes mood and physiological states. Substance use, such as khat use, is prohibited during fasting during Ramadan, a traditional practice among Muslims. Habitual khat use is associated with increased negative affect and altered psychobiological stress responses. Effects of fasting on stress responses, mood, and withdrawal symptoms among khat users have not been examined. Methods: In this study, 80 individuals completed an ambulatory monitoring period and a laboratory assessment session. Participants who completed the study while fasting during Ramadan were matched by gender and khat use status with participants who completed the study while not fasting. This resulted in 40 participants (12 females and 28 males; 25 khat users and 15 nonusers) in each fasting group. Cardiovascular (blood pressure and heart rate) and subjective measures were collected throughout the laboratory stress session. A mental arithmetic challenge was used to induce stress. In addition, self-reported mood and withdrawal measures were collected multiple times during the ambulatory assessment. Results: Khat users reported greater negative affect than nonusers. Results from the ambulatory study indicated that withdrawal symptoms were lower during evening hours in the fasting group than in the no-fasting group. Stress-related changes in positive and negative affects were flattened in the fasting group relative to the no-fasting group. Khat users reported reduced blood pressure responses relative to nonusers. Conclusion: These preliminary results demonstrate that fasting is associated with reduced negative affect and withdrawal symptoms in khat users. Khat use was related to blunted blood pressure stress responses, but this was independent of fasting. Due to the small sample size, these results should be replicated with a large sample and comprehensive stress tasks.

Impaired cognitive performance under psychosocial stress in cannabis-dependent men is associated with attenuated precuneus activity

Deficient regulation of stress plays an important role in the escalation of substance use, addiction and relapse. Accumulating evidence suggests dysregulations in cognitive and reward-related processes and the underlying neural circuitry in cannabis dependence. However, despite the important regulatory role of the endocannabinoid system in the stress response, associations between chronic cannabis use and altered stress processing at the neural level have not been systematically examined. Against this background, the present functional MRI study examined psychosocial stress processing in cannabis-dependent men (n = 28) and matched controls (n = 23) using an established stress-induction paradigm (Montreal Imaging Stress Task) that combines computerized (adaptive) mental arithmetic challenges with social evaluative threat. During psychosocial stress exposure, but not the no-stress condition, cannabis users demonstrated impaired performance relative to controls. In contrast, levels of experienced stress and cardiovascular stress responsivity did not differ from controls. Functional MRI data revealed that stress-induced performance deteriorations in cannabis users was accompanied by decreased precuneus activity and increased connectivity of this region with the superior frontal gyrus. Only male cannabis-dependent users were examined; the generalizability in female users remains to be determined. Together, the present findings provide first evidence for exaggerated stress-induced cognitive performance deteriorations in cannabis users. The neural data suggest that deficient stress-related recruitment of the precuneus may be associated with the deterioration of performance at the behavioural level.

Exogenous Ketone Salts Do Not Improve Cognitive Performance During a Dual-Stress Challenge.

In the present study, our team aimed to investigate the effects of acute ingestion of a ketone salt (KS) supplement on the cognitive performance in healthy college-aged males during a dual-stress challenge (DSC). Following a peak oxygen uptake test and DSC familiarization, 16 males completed a DSC while cycling at 60% of their respective peak oxygen uptake after ingesting either a commercially available racemic (D- and L-)β-hydroxybutyrate (β-OHB) KS (0.38g/kg body mass) or a placebo, using a triple-blinded, crossover, and counterbalanced design. The participants consumed the KS or placebo at -60 and -15min prior to the start of the DSC. Heart rate, rating of perceived exertion, and blood β-OHB and glucose were sampled throughout. The DSC consisted of a mental arithmetic challenge and a modified Stroop Color Word, which alternated every 2min for 20min. Upon completion of the DSC, responses for correct, incorrect, and no responses were recorded for the mental arithmetic challenge and Stroop Color Word. Blood β-OHB was elevated with KS by -15min and remained so throughout (p < .001), peaking at 0.76 ± 0.32mM. Blood glucose was lower with KS compared with the placebo at -15 and 10min by 9% and 5%, respectively (both ps < .05). There were no differences between the treatments for heart rate, rating of perceived exertion, mental arithmetic challenge, or Stroop Color Word. Overall, this study suggests that KSs are not effective aids for enhancing cognitive performance during a DSC, which might partially be explained by the inability of currently available commercial KS supplements to elevate β-OHB blood concentrations above ∼1.0mM.

Dual Stress Warm-Up Protocol Does Not Significantly Alter Blood Glucose Concentration

Dual stress challenges (e.g. paired physical and psychological challenges) have been shown to increase catecholamine and cortisol responses above that of exercise alone; however, the underlying mechanisms to explain this effect are not well defined. The increased hormonal response is thought to be the result of a greater glucose demand due to the challenges imposed on both the brain and skeletal muscle. PURPOSE: To determine whether a dual stress warm-up protocol significantly alters circulating glucose concentrations before and after a Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT). METHODS: Thirteen college-aged subjects (Mean ± SD; age = 21 ± 3 yr; Height = 177 ± 9 cm; Weight = 81.8 ± 11.8 kg) volunteered to participate and completed a familiarization WAnT on a Monark cycle ergometer using a resistance of 7.5% bodyweight prior to testing. On two separate visits, separated by at least 3 d but no more than 1 wk, subjects randomly completed a WAnT preceded by either a 5 min warm-up at a resistance of 1.5% BW at a pedal rate of 70-80 rpm (CTRL) or the same warm-up while also completing the Paced Auditory Serial Test, which is a mental arithmetic challenge (EXPT). Blood glucose was measured at 5 time points (pre, post warm up, post WAnT, and at 5 min and 10 min post WAnT) using a Contour NEXT Blood Glucose Monitor. Subjects abstained from caffeine, alcohol, and exercise for the 24 hr prior to testing. Diet was standardized across subjects for the 12 hr prior to each visit. Data were analyzed using a 2x5 repeated measures ANOVA (α < 0.05). RESULTS: There were no significant interactions between the two conditions. However, there was a main effect for time (p = .001) with glucose concentrations significantly increased at 5 min post WAnT. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that incorporating a psychological challenge during a warm-up session had no effect on glucose concentrations following a WAnT when compared to warm-up session alone. The lack of a significant finding may be due to the relatively small sample size or by the lack of difficulty of the mental challenge. Future studies are warranted using higher-stress cognitive tests to gain a better understanding of the effect of dual stress challenges on glucose concentrations prior to and following exercise.

Sympathetic and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal asymmetry in generalized anxiety disorder.

Physiologic investigations of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) have skewed toward assessment of the autonomic nervous system, largely neglecting hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis variables. Although these systems coordinate-suggesting a degree of symmetry-to promote adaptive functioning, most studies opt to monitor either one system or the other. Using a ratio of salivary alpha-amylase (sAA) over salivary cortisol, the present study examined symmetry between the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and HPA axis in individuals with GAD (n = 71) and healthy controls (n = 37). Compared to healthy controls, individuals with GAD exhibited greater baseline ratios of sAA/cortisol and smaller ratios of sAA/cortisol following a mental arithmetic challenge. We propose that the present study provides evidence for SNS-HPA asymmetry in GAD. Further, these results suggest that increased SNS suppression in GAD may be partially mediated by cortisol activity.

Effects of heart rate variability biofeedback on cardiovascular responses and autonomic sympathovagal modulation following stressor tasks in prehypertensives.

Autonomic dysfunction is implicated in prehypertension, and previous studies have suggested that therapies that improve modulation of sympathovagal balance, such as biofeedback and slow abdominal breathing, are effective in patients with prehypertension at rest. However, considering that psychophysiological stressors may be associated with greater cardiovascular risk in prehypertensives, it is important to investigate whether heart rate variability biofeedback (HRV-BF) results in equivalent effects on autonomic cardiovascular responses control during stressful conditions in prehypertensives. A total of 32 college students with prehypertension were enrolled and randomly assigned to HRV-BF (n=12), slow abdominal breathing (SAB, n=10) or no treatment (control, n=10) groups. Then, a training experiment consisting of 15 sessions was employed to compare the effect of each intervention on the following cardiovascular response indicators before and after intervention: heart rate (HR); heart rate variability (HRV) components; blood volume pulse amplitude (BVPamp); galvanic skin response; respiration rate (RSP); and blood pressure. In addition, the cold pressor test and the mental arithmetic challenge test were also performed over two successive days before and after the invention as well as after 3 months of follow-up. A significant decrease in HR and RSP and a significant increase in BVPamp were observed after the HRV-BF intervention (P<0.001). For the HRV analysis, HRV-BF significantly reduced the ratio of low-frequency power to high-frequency power (the LF/HF ratio, P<0.001) and increased the normalized high-frequency power (HFnm) (P<0.001) during the stress tests, and an added benefit over SAB by improving HRV was also observed. In the 3-month follow-up study, similar effects on RSP, BVPamp, LF/HF and HFnm were observed in the HRV-BF group compared with the SAB group. HRV-BF training contributes to the beneficial effect of reducing the stress-related cardiovascular response in prehypertensives by improving autonomic sympathovagal modulation.

Rated and measured impulsivity in children is associated with diminished cardiac reactions to acute psychological stress

This study examined the association between impulsivity and heart rate reactions to a brief psychological stress in pre-adolescent children. Impulsivity was assessed by two response inhibition tasks and maternal self-report. Heart rate was measured at rest and in response to a mental arithmetic challenge. Children high in impulsivity showed blunted cardiac stress reactions. This result resonates with previous findings that blunted stress reactivity is characteristic of a range of problematic behaviours often associated with impulsivity.

Poor Working Memory and Reduced Blood Pressure Levels in Concurrent Users of Khat and Tobacco

The purpose of this study was to examine the extent in which concurrent use of khat and tobacco was associated with decrements in working memory. We also tested whether cardiovascular activity during a cognitive task was related to performance outcomes, as research has shown linkages between maladaptive physiological adjustments and cognitive functions. Seventy-four concurrent users of khat and tobacco, 49 khat-only users, and 52 nonusers (M age ± SD: 23.8±4.8) completed a laboratory session including 10 min of a mental arithmetic challenge task. Systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure and heart rate were collected throughout the task. Analyses of variance and correlational analyses were conducted. We found that concurrent users evidenced the lowest number of correct responses on the math task among these 3 groups (ps < .05). Concurrent users also showed fewer number of attempts than khat-only users (ps < .01) and lower accuracy rate than nonusers (ps < .05). The performance of khat-only users and nonusers were comparable on these 3 measures (p > .76). Overall blood pressure levels were lower in concurrent users than in nonusers (p < .05). Correlational analysis found that lower SBP during the math task was associated with fewer number of correct responses and attempts and lower accuracy rate on the task (ps < .05). Multiple regression analysis controlling for gender found that concurrent use predicted math performance (ps < .05). Reported duration and frequency of khat and tobacco use and nicotine dependence predicted performance measures (ps < .05). These findings suggest potential linkages between concurrent use of khat and tobacco and impaired working memory.

The imaging Maastricht Acute Stress Test (iMAST): A neuroimaging compatible psychophysiological stressor

Several protocols have been developed for inducing acute stress in laboratory settings. Still, effectively eliciting stress in a neuroimaging environment remains challenging. Here, we describe the evaluation of a combined physical and psychosocial stress protocol (n = 42). The imaging Maastricht Acute Stress Test (iMAST) consists of a 5-min preparation phase and a 10-min acute stress phase, with alternating trials of cold pressor stress generated through an advanced thermal stimulator and mental arithmetic challenges along with social-evaluative pressure (i.e., negative feedback). Results demonstrate that participants displayed meaningful subjective stress responses, as well as significant increases in salivary alpha-amylase and cortisol levels. Our data show that the iMAST may prove to be a potent alternative to existing imaging stress paradigms to explore poststress neuronal changes and brain determinants of resilience.

Oscillopsia and the Influence of Stress and Motivation in Fusion Maldevelopment Nystagmus Syndrome

We examined factors influencing perceptual stability in observers with fusion maldevelopment nystagmus syndrome (FMNS). In addition, we also investigated the effect of visual demand, task-related physiologic stress, and motivation on the nystagmus waveform. Perception of oscillopsia during daily activities was assessed via a questionnaire. Perception of oscillopsia in the laboratory was assessed using central and peripheral (10°) light emitting diodes (LEDs) in front of a background display of random, fixed-contrast shapes. Task-induced stress was achieved via a time restricted acuity task with or without concurrent mental arithmetic challenge, and motivation varied using a reward-penalty paradigm. The experiments have been previously described elsewhere. Six out of nine subjects reported experiencing oscillopsia in certain daily activities. in the laboratory, the percentages of trials with perceptions of motion of the led and background were as follows: neither, 60% to 70%; background only, 20% to 30%; both, 5% to 15%, and LED only, 5% to 15%. Over all trials, six of nine experienced oscillopsia for both the low- and high-contrast image respectively (i.e., three subjects never experienced oscillopsia). The background was frequently seen moving for both images regardless of contrast and/or condition. Trials with and without oscillopsia did not differ when comparing foveation. In the second experiment, task-related physiologic stress and motivation were reflected in an increase in heart rate; nystagmus waveform intensity increased and foveation decreased. The magnitude of changes in heart rate was uncorrelated with changes in waveform parameters for all experiments, however. Preliminary results suggest that the FMNS group does perceive spatially inhomogeneous oscillopsia, similar to infantile nystagmus syndrome (INS), in certain visual environments. In investigating the effect of stress and motivation on FMNS, a new, if tentative, finding suggests that task-induced stress and/or motivation may have a negative impact on the nystagmus. Taken together, our findings provide an insight into the particular environments and tasks that are likely to present particular challenges to persons with FMNS.

Speed++TM: A New Pencil Puzzle for Mental Arithmetic

A new pencil puzzle, Speed++TM, was developed by combining and adapting the ideas of two popular Japanese pencil puzzles i.e. Kakuro and Numberlink. The novel characteristics of Speed++TM and its advantages are then compared to traditionally composed mental arithmetic questions used in practice and competitions by mental arithmetic associations. In particular, the new puzzles have a dynamic structure which in effect tests visual-spatial skills, memory, and concentration. The puzzles also look more appealing and are easy to produce through computer implemented algorithms. We further describe the potential of this puzzle as a more vibrant mental arithmetic challenge for mental arithmeticians and its viability for educational use in schools and brain training programs similar to Prof. Kawashima’s world famous brain training program.

Reduced neutrophil superoxide production among healthy older adults in response to acute psychological stress

Ageing is associated with higher morbidity and mortality, and declining immune function, termed immunesenescence. The present study examined the effects of an acute laboratory psychological stress task on innate immunity, specifically neutrophil function, among older adults. The two functional assays used were phagocytosis of Escherichia coli and stimulated superoxide production. Participants were 17 (11 female) older adults (mean age 75.7, SD=7.06years). Blood samples to determine neutrophil function by flow cytometry were taken at the end of resting baseline, during an acute stress task and during recovery. The stress task was an 8-minute time-pressured mental arithmetic challenge with social evaluation. There was a significant reduction in neutrophil superoxide production, p=.017, η2p=.240, associated with the stress task relative to baseline, but no effect on phagocytosis. The results of this study could contribute to explaining the increased risk of infection in older adults, particularly those subject to frequent stress exposures. Future research is needed to explore the underlying mechanisms of acute stress effects on human neutrophil function in older adults in greater detail.

Khat Use and Trait Anger: Effects on Affect Regulation during an Acute Stressful Challenge

Khat (Catha edulis) is a widely used stimulating drug often consumed in daily routine in Yemen and East African countries. Chewing khat acutely elicits states of euphoria and feelings of well-being which later shift into emotional instability and low mood. Little is known about emotional regulation in habitual khat chewers. In this study, we compared self-reports on trait anger as well as positive and negative affect responses to a mental arithmetic challenge. Participants included 135 men and women from Yemen who chew khat regularly, occasionally or not at all. Participants attended a laboratory session that involved resting periods and performing a math challenge. Analyses of variance and regression show that regular khat chewing is associated with higher trait anger, more pronounced negative responses during stress and less pronounced positive emotional states. These results suggest that regular khat chewing is associated with disturbances in emotion regulation processes.

Reported fatigue, difficulty, and cardiovascular response to an auditory mental arithmetic challenge

Undergraduates scoring low and high on a questionnaire measure of relatively extended fatigue were presented four versions of an auditory mental arithmetic challenge, ranging in difficulty from low to impossibly high. Among Low Fatigue participants, blood pressure and heart rate responses assessed during the work periods first rose and then fell with difficulty. Among High Fatigue participants, blood pressure responses remained low across difficulty conditions, while heart rate responses rose weakly from the low- to the moderate difficulty condition and then declined. Findings are discussed in terms of a recent interactional analysis of fatigue influence on cardiovascular response.

Altered Human Neutrophil Function in Response to Acute Psychological Stress

To examine the effects of an acute laboratory psychological stress task on neutrophil function, specifically phagocytosis of Escherichia coli and stimulated superoxide production in human neutrophils. There is mounting evidence that acute stress is associated with short-term increases in a number of immune indices. Participants were 40 (n = 20 females) university students (mean age, 25.9 ± 4.56 years). Blood samples to determine neutrophil function by flow cytometry were taken at the end of resting baseline, during an acute stress task, and during recovery. The stress task was a 10-minute time-pressured mental arithmetic challenge with social evaluation. There was an acute increase in phagocytic ability, p = .047, η(2)p = 0.076, and a reduction of superoxide production, p = .026, η(2)p = 0.101, associated with the stress task relative to baseline. These findings suggest that neutrophil bactericidal function may be sensitive to mental challenge tasks that provoke acute psychological stress. Further research is needed to replicate the observed psychological stress-induced changes in neutrophil function.

Comparison Of The Cross-stressor Adaptation Between Exercisers, Athletes, And College Students To Mental Stress

Sothmann and colleagues (1996) proposed that training aids the fit individual by affording a blunted cardiovascular response to stress when compared to their less fit counterparts. This phenomenon is know as the cross-stressor adaptation hypothesis. PURPOSE: To examine physiological responses (i.e., cardiac and blood pressure response) to mental stressors during a 10-minute mental arithmetic challenge with noxious auditory feedback testing the cross stressor adaptation hypothesis. METHODS: Cardiovascular responses were measured in a group of exercisers (N=35), college athletes (N=14), and non-exercising, college students (N=20). Measures were taken at baseline, then in 2 minute intervals for the duration of the stressor. Perception of mental effort, stress, and attention were also assessed. Four subjects presented with hypertension and were eliminated from the data analysis. Family history of cardiovascular disease, gender, perceptual measures were analyzed and were not statistically significant. Next, repeated measures ANOVAs were performed to examine the change of baseline Heart Rate (HR), systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), and mean arterial pressure (MAP) from each recording (taken every 2 minutes during the stressor). RESULTS: HR, SBP, and DBP failed to significantly vary based on physical activity classification. Moreover, only the time variable was significant (P <0.001) for all measures except MAP. CONCLUSIONS: Thus, no support was demonstrated for the cross-stressor adaptation hypothesis even though trends toward support were evident. Future studies should employ more sophisticated measures of cardiovascular function to detect changes to physiological stress response.TABLE