Men's Body Image Research Articles

Active and passive social media use: Relationships with body image in physically active men

Little is known about how different types of engagement with social media (active vs passive) relate to body image in men. This study explored relationships between social media use (active and passive), body image, and drive for muscularity in physically active men. A questionnaire containing measures of body image (appearance valence, appearance salience), drive for muscularity, and social media use was completed by 224 men aged 18–50 years. Results showed a negative relationship between active social media use and appearance valence. Active and passive social media use were positively associated with drive for muscularity and appearance salience. Passive social media use was predictive of higher appearance salience and drive for muscularity in linear regression models. These findings suggest social media may be linked to body image and muscularity concerns in men.

A Call for More Culture-Based Research to Understand Body Dissatisfaction and Disordered Eating in Men: Commentary on Monocello et al. (2024).

Using culture-based approaches, Monocello et al. revealed that young Korean men generally shared the same perceptions of fatness, including three categories ("too thin," "balanced," and "too fat"). The "balanced" category was most consistent with local South Korean culture, and the "too fat" category was associated with higher body dissatisfaction and disordered eating. Even though cultural differences in body ideals are an essential factor to consider in the development of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating, little research has applied culture-based approaches to explore body ideals in men, including how these ideals may be related to men's body image or eating behaviors. Thus, Monocello et al.'s work is a timely and vital contribution to the literature. In this commentary, we expand on Monocello et al.'s work by not only illustrating the roles of local cultures but also introducing the potential influences of external cultures via acculturation in shaping body ideals which, in turn, contribute to body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in men. We also provide future research directions to call for more culture-based research to understand body dissatisfaction and disordered eating among men in different cultural contexts.

What Motivates Men to Improve Their Health? Understanding the Roles of Self-Esteem and Influential Others in Behaviour Change.

The aim of this study was to examine men's body image confidence, social reflectivity, body image perceptions and external information sources influence regarding body assessments. Data were collected via a cross-sectional survey and found that men have a low motivation toward physical health behaviour changes such as food, alcohol and exercise evaluation, and have generally positive views of their bodies overall. Relationship status, rather than age, defined behavioural and attitudinal differences within the men studied here. Men in this study were largely uninfluenced by celebrities or fashion in developing their own body image perceptions; single males were more likely to turn to friends, the female population generally and societal norms when evaluating themselves. Males in relationships however, weighted their partner's opinion as the greatest influence, followed by their involvement in sport. This study offers an insight into the role of body confidence in male perspectives of the self, which is important for its intrinsic connection to motivations for health behaviours such as body weight management. This has implications for increasing the effectiveness of health-related product and service messaging, and public health messages regarding body weight management for men.

Body evaluation in men: the role of body weight dissatisfaction in appearance evaluation, eating, and muscle dysmorphia psychopathology.

Body image dissatisfaction is a significant concern among men, influencing appearance evaluation, eating behaviors, and muscle dysmorphia psychopathology. However, research on these correlations is notably deficient in men, largely because body image concerns are unevenly distributed between genders. Therefore, this study aims to assess the various dimensions of concerns about body image in men and explore their associations with characteristics such as sexual orientation. A cross-sectional study was conducted with 251 adult men from fitness centers in the Veneto Region, Italy. Participants completed self-report questionnaires, including the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26), the Appearance Schemas Inventory-Revised (ASI-R), and the Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder Inventory (MDDI). Body weight perception and dissatisfaction were evaluated using a Figure Rating Scale (FRS) with 12 male biometric silhouettes. Participants were divided into three subgroups based on the experienced levels of body weight dissatisfaction: those who rated a smaller body (BWsmaller), those who rated a larger body (BWlarger) more highly relative to their own estimated body size, and those who reported implicit neutrality with their current weight (BWneu). BWsmaller participants reported higher levels of eating-related concern, while BWlarger participants exhibited higher levels of muscle dysmorphia. Additionally, the BWlarger group showed the highest degree of quantitative perceptual underestimation of their body weight. Sexual orientation was found to have an impact on body weight dissatisfaction, with bisexual men more likely to desire an increase in weight and gay men more likely to desire a decrease. Body weight dissatisfaction significantly impacts appearance evaluation, eating behaviors, and muscle dysmorphia psychopathology in males. Tailored interventions that consider individual differences can support the well-being of men. The study provides useful insight into male body image issues, warranting further exploration to inform effective interventions and promote positive body image and mental health in this population.

Does body positivity work for men as it does for women? The impact of idealized body and body positive imagery on body satisfaction, drive for thinness, and drive for muscularity

Exposure to body-positive imagery plays a positive role in women's body image. However, literature has not examined if this is the case for men too. In this study (N = 207), we examined the impact of idealized body and body-positive imagery on both men's and women's body satisfaction and body image concerns. Participants were asked to report their positive and negative mood, body satisfaction, drive for thinness, and drive for muscularity before and after being exposed to either control (landscapes and animals), idealized body, or body-positive imagery. Results showed that women were overall more dissatisfied with their bodies and reported a stronger negative mood and a higher drive for thinness than men. Men, instead, reported a higher drive for muscularity. Exposure to idealized body imagery decreased positive mood and body satisfaction in both men and women. In contrast, exposure to body-positive imagery increased body satisfaction and decreased the drive for thinness in both men and women. Drive for muscularity was not affected by the type of imagery. The findings show that idealized body and body-positive imagery have similar effects on men and women and showcase the importance of considering the effects of body-positivity content for both genders.

BODY IMAGE IN AGING

Body image relates to how individuals perceive and feel about their bodies. Research on body image in men, women, and adolescents has increased substantially in the past two decades. Body image, determined by various instruments, is classified as either negative or positive. A positive body image implies that the body is seen accurately and that the individual is delighted with their physical appearance. Negative body images are characterized by inaccurate perceptions of all or a part of the body and uncomfortable feelings associated with them. Negative body image has been linked to eating disorders and mental disorders. The media, social pressures, cultural norms, age, gender, level of education, and an individual’s opinion of beauty all influence his or her body image perception. Studies in this area have been predominantly conducted with a focus on the association between eating disorders and dissatisfaction with body image in adolescents and young women. However, there is a growing interest in studying how body image functions and how it corresponds with psychological well-being across a lifetime in various demographic groups, especially among older adults. In this review, the life-altering body image satisfaction of men and women, as well as associated problems, were examined. The relationship between body dissatisfaction across ages, confounded by obesity, eating disorders, low physical activity, age-related reduction in sexual activity, and unhealthy lifestyle behaviors has been investigated.

Checking the scales: A psychometric evaluation of the Weight Concerns Scale in a sample of college-aged cisgender men from the United States.

Historically, western societies have considered body image issues to predominantly affect young, White women. While in recent years men's body image issues have been increasingly highlighted by researchers and the media alike, many instruments currently used to identify clinically significant body image disturbances were developed and validated with samples solely of women and/or girls. One such measure, Killen et al.'s (1994) Weight Concerns Scale (WCS), was initially validated in a sample of adolescent girls. The WCS has yet to be validated in samples of men, despite being used in large national surveys of college men and women (e.g., the Healthy Minds Study; HMS) used to inform resources on college campuses. Accordingly, we used structural equation modeling to conduct invariance testing between college student cisgender men's (n = 2,248) and women's (n = 4,733) responses on the WCS via the HMS. Through the use of two different approaches of invariance testing, evidence for metric noninvariance of two of the five items was identified, and all five items evidenced a response pattern that favored women over men. Additionally, removing noninvariant items on the WCS impacted the moderating effect of gender with indicators of depression, anxiety, and eating disorder symptomology. These findings suggest that the use of the WCS may not be appropriate for use in a cis-male sample without modification. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Intercultural insights on the impact of different non-idealized models on men's body image and advertising perceptions.

This experiment with 363 Irish and Flemish men aged 19 to 30 years (M = 23.56, SD = 2.36) investigated exposure to different male model ads (i.e. muscular, slim, plus-size, overall diversity, and no models) on well-being (i.e. body image, low body fat and muscularity attitudes, self-objectification, and self-esteem) and advertising outcomes (i.e. ad attitudes, brand attitudes, and purchase intent). Moderation effects of country and masculinity (i.e. dominance, winning) were investigated. The diversity condition generated more positive effects for low body fat attitudes than the muscular, slim, and no model conditions. Yet, no differences appeared for this outcome between the diversity and plus-size condition. No effects for the other well-being and advertising variables were found. Moderation analyses revealed higher purchase intent in the slim condition for men high in dominance. No effects were found for country and winning. Findings suggest that non-idealized models have protective effects for some men.

Is (Disordered) Social Networking Sites Usage a Risk Factor for Dysfunctional Eating and Exercise Behavior?

Research over the past years has shown that exposure to thin and beauty ideals in the media can be associated with disordered eating and related variables. Nowadays, interactive media, such as social networking sites, have gained growing popularity and represent a major part of people's lives. It is therefore crucial to investigate how far users might be negatively influenced by social networking sites regarding eating pathology or excessive exercise behavior and if there are particular links to social media use disorder. Data were collected by an online-survey encompassing questions on regular social networking site use, eating disorders, and excessive exercise behavior. Analyses showed that disordered social networking sites use was significantly related to eating pathology and a poorer body image in men and women. The frequency of active or passive social networking sites usage however was not associated with exercise behavior. Our results confirm that disordered social networking sites use represents a risk factor for body image dissatisfaction and associated eating disorders.

Portrayals the Ideal Men’s Body through the Body’s Nutritional Products

The body becomes an object that continues to change in the direction desired by each human being so that everyone has different goals and efforts in determining the purposes of their respective bodies. This is reinforced by the concept of the body being disorganized so that the capitalist industry uses this opportunity to discipline the body. Based on this background, this study aims to discover how the @lmen Instagram post evokes fantasies in men's minds through the signs that appear in @lmen's Instagram posts. The method used in this research is Charles Sanders Peirce's semiotics of 5 selected @lmen Instagram posts during 2020, which features a model represented by the winner of The New L-Men of the Year with L-Men products in one post. The conclusion obtained in this study is that men's body image with arm muscles and healthy skin is dominated by the consumption of L-Men as a body nutrition product.

The values you endorse set the body you see: The protective effect of intrinsic life goals on men's body dissatisfaction.

The mass media portrayal of a muscular body type ideal has been increasingly tied to men's body image dissatisfaction. We examined the role of self‐determination theory's intrinsic life goals within this body image ideal and its potential as a moderator of this dissatisfaction. We first tested the moderating effect of intrinsic life goals on the link between magazine consumption and body image dissatisfaction via an online questionnaire (Study 1; N = 826), then experimentally manipulated these goals and exposure to images of muscular male models (Study 2; N = 150). A robust protective effect of intrinsic goals on body image satisfaction was observed – the relationship between magazine consumption and body image dissatisfaction was only significant among individuals with a lower level of intrinsic life goal orientation. When participants' intrinsic goals were momentarily heightened, they reported significantly less body image dissatisfaction, compared to those not receiving a strengthening of these goals. The results are the first to find a protective effect of intrinsic life goals on men's body image, and have important implications for intervention.

"Guys with Big Muscles Have Misplaced Priorities": Masculinities and Muscularities in Young South Korean Men's Body Image.

Men’s body image is an issue of increasing importance as related illnesses continue to grow in prevalence around the world. However, cross-cultural attention to men’s body image experiences has been relatively understudied. Based on data derived from cognitive anthropological methods of cultural domain analysis, I develop the concept of “muscularities” to more effectively examine the expectations inherent in multifarious models of body image men continuously navigate. Related to but distinct from “masculinities”—the recognition of culture-bound hierarchies of ways of doing-being a man—“muscularities” attends to the culturally particular ways in which muscles are conceived and evaluated as indices of socioeconomic status, intelligence, social skills, and professionalism, to name a few. Young South Korean men’s experiences of chan’gŭnyuk (“small muscle”) and manŭn kŭnyuk (“large muscle”) challenge universalist assumptions about the kinds of muscles people value in global perspective, demonstrate the necessity of recognizing multiple muscularities in research, and encourage new directions of inquiry that attend to the consequences of variable embodiments of muscularities.

Body image in men with prostate or laryngeal cancer and their female partners.

Objectives: The study examines body image of male cancer patients and their female partners as well as factors influencing body image. Methods: N = 73 heterosexual couples in which the male partner was diagnosed with prostate (PC; n = 52) or laryngeal cancer (LC; n = 21) completed questionnaires on body image acceptance (Self Image Scale), relationship satisfaction (Quality of Marriage Questionnaire), and cancer-related distress (Questionnaire on Stress in Cancer Patients). The body image was assessed from two perspectives: self-acceptance (which measures a person's satisfaction or acceptance of the body) and partner-acceptance (which assesses a person's perception of the partners' appraisals of the body). Results: No differences occurred in body image acceptance between men with PC or LC. Patients with PC rated the perceived partner-acceptance lower than did their female partners. In couples with LC, women rated the self-acceptance of their partners higher than did the patients themselves. Multiple regression analysis revealed that for survivors of PC, cancer-related distress, relationship satisfaction and partner-acceptance emerged as significant predictors of self-acceptance. The only significant predictor of partner-acceptance was men's self-acceptance. Conclusions: The dissatisfaction with physical appearance is found in PK and LK patients and seems to persist for a long time. Impairment of patients' body image should be identified and addressed to prevent the negative effects on psychosocial stress for patients and relationship satisfaction.

Body-Related Attentional Bias among Men with High and Low Muscularity Dissatisfaction.

Previous studies have found gender differences in body-related attentional bias (AB), with women showing AB towards weight-related body parts. However, few studies have assessed the relationship between body-related AB and muscularity dissatisfaction (MD) in men. This study aimed to assess the presence of muscle-related AB in men, using a combination of a virtual reality (VR) embodiment-based technique and eye-tracking (ET) technology. Twenty men with high MD and 20 with low MD, owned a virtual avatar that had the same silhouette and body mass index as the participant. To analyze the gaze data, muscle-related areas of interest (M-AOIs) and nonmuscle-related areas of interest (NM-AOIs) were defined. The complete fixation time and the number of fixations on each AOI were recorded. Mixed between (group)-within (AOI_condition) analyses of variance showed a statistically significant interaction between group and time (p < 0.05) in both AB measures. Follow-up analyses revealed an AB towards M-AOIs only in men with high MD. Overall, men with high MD spent more time looking and displayed a higher number of fixations on M-AOIs, specifically the chest and shoulders, compared to men with low MD. This study provides new information about the relationship between MD and body-related AB in men. Combining VR with ET technologies presents interesting opportunities in the study of body image in men.

Male Body Image Portrayals on Instagram.

Men are faced with trends that give rise to the desire for a muscular and lean body; this may result in body dissatisfaction. Body dissatisfaction is associated with a plethora of health consequences. Social media has been named as one contributing factor for male body dissatisfaction. Up till now, women have been the focus of body image-related social media studies. Therefore, we conducted a quantitative content analysis of 1,000 relevant Instagram posts that were posted by men (and/or depicted men) to understand how the male body is depicted on Instagram and how user respond to those images. The majority of sampled posts showed high levels of muscularity and leanness. In addition, posts depicting men adhering to this specific body type received significantly more responses (likes and comments). Norms and outcomes related to health (i.e., training to be healthy) were more commonly shown than appearance-related constructs (i.e., training to become attractive), and promotion of physical activity was more common than dietary behavior. However, findings are potential harmful to men's body image, even if one considers that health-related messaging and physical active promotion was prominent. It remains debatable if men need to view very lean and very muscular men to encourage health-related behaviors.

Muscles and the Media: A Natural Experiment Across Cultures in Men's Body Image.

An increasing number of studies are evidencing relationships between the drive for muscularity and potentially harmful behavioral strategies, such as unhealthy dieting and steroid use amongst men in WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic) populations. As such Western appearance standards proliferate around the world via the media, men who live in other cultural contexts are also at risk of potentially negative effects from aspiring to the “muscular ideal.” However, few studies have explored these relationships in non-WEIRD populations. We investigated men’s body ideals and body image in two non-WEIRD, non-White populations, Uganda (Africa) and Nicaragua (Central America), and compared them with an ethnically diverse sample of men in the United Kingdom. We also examined whether socio-cultural factors including media and ethnicity, predicted the drive for muscularity and body change behaviors among our participants. Results showed that Ugandan men had the least desire for muscularity relative to men in the United Kingdom. Supporting the Tripartite model we found that media and peer influences significantly predicted the drive for muscularity, particularly among men from White British and Nicaraguan Miskitu ethnic groups. By contrast, Creole / Garifuna and Mestizo men from Nicaragua were more likely to want to increase muscularity relative to Black African men from Uganda. Overall, our findings support previous research in demonstrating that there are cultural differences in the kind of body men desire, and that men from WEIRD and non-WEIRD populations may experience similar pressures to aspire to and attain a muscular body type.

Flower boys and muscled men: comparing South Korean and American male body ideals using cultural domain analysis

Body image disturbance and eating disorders are rising all over the world. However, little is known about experiences of body image in men across cultural groups, and measurement tools often fail to account for the profound ways in which culture and gender can affect these data. An American cultural model of the ideal male body was compared with that of South Koreans using cultural domain analysis and residual agreement analysis. Cultural domain analysis gives researchers the ability to systematically study cultural models based on informants’ emic understanding of phenomena; residual agreement analysis evaluates the patterns of agreement in disagreement with a larger cultural model. This study shows that Americans and South Koreans often overlap in their assessments of the desirability of male bodily features; however, they also strongly endorse many differing features, as well as similar features for different cultural reasons. For example, Americans endorse muscularity because it indexes physical prowess and health; South Koreans only sometimes endorse muscularity, mainly as an aesthetic choice. As a result, psychometric tools for measuring body dissatisfaction that are uncritically adopted for use in cross-cultural research may miss important information affecting the validity of findings and the efficacy of prevention campaigns and treatment plans.

Differential media effects on male body satisfaction and mood

ObjectivePrevious research has shown that idealised images of men in the media have the capacity to trigger body dissatisfaction in male viewers. However, little is known about these effects across diverse media types. This study compared the effects of different media on men's body satisfaction and mood within a social comparison theory framework.MethodYoung adult men (N = 110) were randomly assigned to view images of scenery or idealised depictions of males across four media conditions including television commercials, music video clips, still images where the model was posed, or still images where the model was active. Men completed pre‐ and post‐test measures of state body satisfaction and mood, and a post‐test measure of social comparison.ResultsMen who viewed television commercials reported a significant drop in body satisfaction and greater social comparison. No effects were found across the other media types.ConclusionOur findings suggest that televised depictions may be particularly detrimental to men's body image, which may be due to increased social comparison processes.

Body Image, Physical Activity and Sport Involvement: A Study on Gender Differences

Abstract The aim of this study is to examine whether sport involvement i.e. identification with the domain of sports affect satisfaction with body image in men and women. 158 respondents from a tertiary educational institution provided data on their satisfaction with their body image, level of sport involvement, and level of physical activity. Independent t-tests were conducted to compare differences between and within genders. Female respondents (n=40) who were high in sport involvement reported a significantly lower level of dissatisfaction with their body image (M=.55, SD=.78) when compared to female respondents (n=44) who were low in sport involvement (M=.84, SD=.83; t=1.65, p&lt;.05). There was no significant difference amongst male respondents. There was also no significant difference in satisfaction with body image across groups with varying levels of physical activity. This suggests that being involved in sport can affect body image satisfaction amongst females.

The Body Image Matrix of Thinness and Muscularity-Male Bodies: Development and validation of a new figure rating scale for body image in men.

The study aimed to validate the Body Image Matrix of Thinness and Muscularity-Male Bodies (BIMTM-MB), a two-dimensional figure rating scale consisting of 64 three-dimensional male bodies, arranged in an 8 × 8 grid, with muscularity increasing stepwise on the vertical axis and body fat on the horizontal axis. The online sample included 355 men participating in an online survey. Besides the BIMTM-MB, participants completed questionnaires on body-related attitudes, behaviors, and psychopathology. Another 91 men were recruited to examine test-retest reliability of the BIMTM-MB. The BIMTM-MB showed good convergent and criterion validity. Men meeting their own body ideal showed higher body satisfaction and lower body-related psychopathology. Test-retest reliability was high. The BIMTM-MB proved to be a reliable and valid measure and is recommended for use in research and clinical practice to examine central aspects of male body image.