Memory In School-age Children Research Articles

Nitrogen dioxide exposure, attentional function, and working memory in children from 4 to 8 years: Periods of susceptibility from pregnancy to childhood

BackgroundAir pollution exposure during pregnancy and childhood has been linked to executive function impairment in children, however, very few studies have assessed these two exposure periods jointly to identify susceptible periods of exposure. We sought to identify potential periods of susceptibility of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) exposure from conception to childhood on attentional function and working memory in school-aged children. MethodsWithin the Spanish INMA Project, we estimated residential daily NO2 exposures during pregnancy and up to 6 years of childhood using land use regression models (n = 1,703). We assessed attentional function at 4–6 years and 6–8 years, using the Conners Kiddie Continuous Performance Test and the Attention Network Test, respectively, and working memory at 6–8 years, using the N-back task. We used distributed lag non-linear models to assess the periods of susceptibility of each outcome, adjusting for potential confounders and correcting for multiple testing. We also stratified all models by sex. ResultsHigher exposure to NO2 between 1.3 and 1.6 years of age was associated with higher hit reaction time standard error (HRT-SE) (0.14 ms (95 % CI 0.05; 0.22) per 10 μg/m3 increase in NO2) and between 1.5 and 2.2 years of age with more omission errors (1.02 (95 % CI 1.01; 1.03) of the attentional function test at 4–6 years. Higher exposure to NO2 between 0.3 and 2.2 years was associated with higher HRT-SE (10.61 ms (95 % CI 3.46; 17.75) at 6–8 years only in boys. We found no associations between exposure to NO2 and working memory at 6–8 years. ConclusionOur findings suggest that NO2 exposure during the first two years of life is associated with poorer attentional function in children from 4 to 8 years of age, especially in boys. These findings highlight the importance of exploring long-term effects of traffic-related air pollution exposure in older age groups.

Decoding the content of working memory in school-aged children

Developmental improvements in working memory (WM) maintenance predict many real-world outcomes, including educational attainment. It is thus critical to understand which WM mechanisms support these behavioral improvements, and how WM maintenance strategies might change through development. One challenge is that specific WM neural mechanisms cannot easily be measured behaviorally, especially in a child population. However, new multivariate decoding techniques have been designed, primarily in adult populations, that can sensitively decode the contents of WM. The goal of this study was to deploy multivariate decoding techniques known to decode memory representations in adults to decode the contents of WM in children. We created a simple computerized WM game for children, in which children maintained different categories of information (visual, spatial or verbal). We collected electroencephalography (EEG) data from 20 children (7–12-year-olds) while they played the game. Using Multivariate Pattern Analysis (MVPA) on children's EEG signals, we reliably decoded the category of the maintained information during the sensory and maintenance period. Across exploratory reliability and validity analyses, we examined the robustness of these results when trained on less data, and how these patterns generalized within individuals throughout the testing session. Furthermore, these results matched theory-based predictions of WM across individuals and across ages. Our proof-of-concept study proposes a direct and age-appropriate potential alternative to exclusively behavioral WM maintenance measures in children. Our study demonstrates the utility of MVPA to measure and track the uninstructed representational content of children's WM. Future research could use our technique to investigate children's WM maintenance and strategies.

Sex-specific association between prenatal manganese exposure and working memory in school-aged children in Mexico city: An exploratory multi-media approach

It remains unclear whether manganese (Mn) exposure affects working memory (WM) in a sexually dimorphic manner. Further, no gold standard media exists to measure Mn, suggesting a combined blood and urinary Mn index may better capture the totality of exposure. We investigated the modification effect of child sex on the influence of prenatal Mn exposure on WM in school-age children, exploring two methodological frameworks to integrate exposure estimates across multiple exposure biomarkers. Leveraging the PROGRESS birth cohort in Mexico City, children (N = 559) ages 6–8 completed the between errors and strategy measures of the CANTAB Spatial Working Memory (SWM) task. Mn levels were assayed in blood and urine of mothers during the 2nd and 3rd trimesters and in umbilical cord blood from mothers and children at delivery. Weighted quantile sum regression estimated the association of a multi-media biomarker (MMB) mixture with SWM. We applied a confirmatory factor analysis to similarly quantify a latent blood Mn burden index. We then used an adjusted linear regression to estimate the Mn burden index with SWM measures. Interaction terms were used to estimate the modification effect by child sex for all models. Results showed that the between-errors-specific MMB mixture (i.e., this model demonstrates the impact of the MMB mixture on the between-error scores.) was associated (β = 6.50, 95% CI: 0.91, 12.08) with fewer between errors for boys and more between errors for girls. The strategy-specific MMB mixture (i.e., this model demonstrates the impact of the MMB mixture on the strategy scores) was associated (β = −1.36, 95% CI: 2.55, - 0.18) with less efficient strategy performance for boys and more efficient strategy performance for girls. A higher Mn burden index was associated (β = 0.86, 95% CI: 0.00, 1.72) with more between errors in the overall sample. The vulnerability to prenatal Mn biomarkers on SWM differs in the directionality by child sex. An MMB mixture and composite index of body burden are stronger predictors than a single biomarker for Mn exposure on WM performance.

Brief Report: Longitudinal Trajectory of Working Memory in School-Aged Children on the Autism Spectrum: Period of High Plasticity and "Late Bloomers".

While working memory (WM) is a powerful predictor for children's school outcomes, autistic children are more likely to experience delays. This study compared autistic children and their neurotypical peers' WM development over their elementary school years, including relative growth and period of plasticity. Using a nationally-representative dataset, latent growth models were built to examine periods of high plasticity and the relationship between children's performance upon school entry and their relative growth. While both groups made steeper gains during the early school years, autistic children's period of highest plasticity was prolonged by 1year, which suggests a larger window for interventions. Further, autistic children who started kindergarten with poorer WM were more likely to make rapid growth during the last 3years of elementary school, which is when their neurotypical peers' development started to plateau. Findings should prompt various stakeholders to examine interventions and instructions to maximize autistic children's growth in WM. Further, the continued support and monitoring by educators throughout autistic children's late childhood can be particularly beneficial for the "late-bloomers."

Nutritional Status With Short-term Memory in School-aged Children

Introduction: The problem of double nutrition includes undernutrition and overnutrition, often found in elementary school children. Nutritional problems in childhood will cause disturbances in children’s cognitive abilities, especially in remembering. The purpose of this study was to analyse the relationship between nutritional status and shortterm memory in 5th grade school-aged children at one of the Elementary schools in Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia. Methods: This research design is non-experimental with a correlation method and cross-sectional approach. A total of 111 respondents were chosen with simple random sampling. Data collection used observation sheets for nutritional status and questionnaire sheets for short-term memory. Results: Chi-square test SPSS statistical test showed that p < 0.001 (α = 0.05) where H1 was accepted, meaning that there was a significant relationship between nutritional status and short-term memory in school-aged children at one of the Elementary schools in Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia. There were 65 respondents with normal nutritional status and 63 respondents with high short-term memory. Moreover, a good nutritional status of the child and a good neurological function of the child’s brain, impact the ability to remember. Conclusion: There is a correlation between nutritional status and short-term memory in school-aged children. Most of the respondents have nutritional status and short-term memory in the normal category and high category at the age of elementary school children. In line with the conclusion, the school is expected to periodically monitor nutritional status through UKS (School Health Unit).

Phonological Working Memory and Sentence Production in School-Age Children with Typical Language, Dyslexia, and Comorbid Dyslexia and Developmental Language Disorder.

Little is known about the relationship between sentence production and phonological working memory in school-age children. To fill this gap, we examined how strongly these constructs correlate. We also compared diagnostic groups' working memory abilities to see if differences co-occurred with qualitative differences in their sentences. We conducted Bayesian analyses on data from seven- to nine-year-old children (n = 165 typical language, n = 81 dyslexia-only, n = 43 comorbid dyslexia and developmental language disorder). We correlated sentence production and working memory scores and conducted t tests between groups' working memory scores and sentence length, lexical diversity, and complexity. Correlations were positive but weak. The dyslexic and typical groups had dissimilar working memory and comparable sentence quality. The dyslexic and comorbid groups had comparable working memory but dissimilar sentence quality. Contrary to literature-based predictions, phonological working memory and sentence production are weakly related in school-age children.

Prenatal manganese and working memory in school-aged children in Mexico City: A multi-media biomarker approach

Prenatal manganese and working memory in school-aged children in Mexico City: A multi-media biomarker approach

Verbal and nonverbal memory in school-aged children born to opioid-dependent mothers

BackgroundThe potential long-term developmental effects of prenatal methadone and buprenorphine exposure during pregnancy are still largely unknown. AimsWe investigated memory function in school-aged children of women enrolled in opioid maintenance therapy (OMT) during pregnancy. Study designProspective longitudinal cohort study. SubjectsParticipants included 41 children (aged 9–11 years), 20 of which had histories of prenatal methadone or buprenorphine exposure. Outcome measuresVerbal and non-verbal memory function was assessed using four subtests from the Test of Memory and Learning - Second edition (TOMAL-2). ResultsThe OMT group scored lower on both the two non-verbal as well as the two verbal memory tasks, all p-values <.05. Group differences remained for three out of the four subtests after controlling for general IQ. Including maternal tobacco use during pregnancy increased the explanatory power of the model, R2 change of 0.07, p = .04. ConclusionsChildren prenatally exposed to methadone or buprenorphine had significantly lower memory performance, however, this association may in part be explained by maternal tobacco use during pregnancy. Consequently, smoking cessation programs should be systematically integrated into opioid maintenance therapy programs for pregnant women.

Emotional Modulation of Episodic Memory in School-Age Children and Adults: An Event-Related Potential Study.

The Emotional Enhancement of Memory (EEM) has been well-demonstrated in adults, but less is known about EEM in children. The present study tested the impact of emotional valence of pictures on episodic memory using behavioral and neurophysiological measures. Twenty-six 8- to 11-year-old children were tested and compared to 30 young adults. Both groups participated in pictures’ intentional encoding tasks while event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded, followed by immediate free recall tasks. Behavioral results revealed a general EEM in free recall performances in both groups, along with a negativity effect in children. ERP responses revealed a particular sensitivity to negative pictures in children with a late emotion effect at anterior clusters, as well as a greater successful encoding effect for emotional pictures compared to neutral ones. For adults, the emotion effect was more pronounced for positive pictures across all time windows from the centro-parietal to the frontal part, and localized in the left hemisphere. Positive pictures also elicited a greater successful encoding effect at anterior clusters in adults. By combining behavioral and neurophysiological measures to assess the EEM in children compared with adults, our study provides new knowledge concerning the interaction between emotional and memory processes during development.

Narrative Abilities and Episodic Memory in School-Aged Children Followed by Child Protective Services.

The ability to narrate routine familiar events develops gradually during middle childhood, in increasingly higher levels of coherence and temporal cohesion. Improvements in episodic memory are also observed, reflecting children’s increasing ability to recall specific circumstances of past events and personal experiences. Even though several studies have evaluated children’s narrative abilities and episodic memory, little information is available regarding the children exposed to risks that justify their referral to Child Protective Services (CPS). The current study analysed children’s narrative abilities and episodic memory performance, according to the circumstances related to the referral to CPS. Event schema representation, narrative coherence, narrative temporal cohesion, and episodic memory concerning routine and specific personal events in family context were analysed in a sample of 56 school-aged children followed by the CPS in Portugal. Children referred to CPS due to disruptive behaviour presented higher episodic memory performance, compared to those exposed to domestic violence, neglect, and abuse. No significant differences were found between groups regarding narrative abilities related to familiar routine events. Results highlight the relevance of evaluating the adverse circumstances that lead to CPS referral, considering the levels of risk and danger involved, given its differential effects on children’s episodic memory development.

Improving prospective memory in school-aged children: Effects of future thinking and performance predictions

Recently, event-based prospective memory (PM) performance of children has been shown to benefit from different encoding strategies such as imagining the execution of a future PM task (i.e., future thinking) and making performance predictions (i.e., metacognitive monitoring). This study aimed to investigate whether and how these two encoding strategies affect PM performance alone and in combination. For this purpose, 127 children aged 8–11 years were assigned to four encoding conditions: (a) standard, (b) performance predictions, (c) future thinking, and (d) future thinking + performance predictions. The ongoing task performance costs (i.e., attentional monitoring), working memory (WM) span, and metacognitive monitoring judgments, such as task difficulty expectations, performance postdictions, confidence judgments, and strategy use, were also evaluated among participants. The results show that combining future thinking instructions with performance predictions considerably improved children’s PM performance without incurring additional attentional monitoring costs. Moreover, whereas children generally tended to overestimate their PM performance, more realistic lower-performance predictions were related to higher PM scores for children in the combined condition. Finally, age, WM, and strategy use significantly predicted PM performance independent of the encoding condition. This study is the first to demonstrate that combining future thinking instructions with performance predictions enhances children’s PM performance compared with each encoding strategy alone. Moreover, this work is the first to show that by simply imagining the execution of a PM task, children’s prediction accuracy can be improved, which is significantly related to the PM performance advantage.

Emotional modulation of episodic memory in school-age children and adults: Emotional items and their associated contextual details.

It is well established that emotional events are better remembered than neutral events. However, little is known about emotional enhancement of memory (EEM) in children. This is particularly the case when the main components of episodic memory are considered: core information (item memory) and its associated contextual details (associative memory). In 2 experiments, the present study tested whether the negative or positive emotional valence of words and pictures can influence item and associative memory. The contextual information to be associated with items was the gender of the voice pronouncing words and the type of frame in which pictures were displayed in Experiment 1, and the spatial location of stimuli in Experiment 2. Two groups of 8- to 11-year-old children (Experiment 1 n = 32 and Experiment 2 n = 36) performed the experiments and were compared to two groups of equivalent numbers of young adults. Participants completed an intentional-encoding task followed by immediate item recognition, associative recall and item recall tasks. Over the two experiments and in both groups, the results revealed (a) no EEM for words and pictures in recognition tasks, (b) EEM for words in item recall and associative recall tasks, and (c) mixed results for pictures, with an EEM being observed in item recall tasks but not systematically in associative recall tasks. By extending the results over two types of stimuli and their associated contextual information, our study provides new knowledge concerning the effect of emotions on episodic memory in children, which seems to be similar to that observed in young adults. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Sounds in the classroom: Auditory context-dependent memory in school-aged children

AbstractContext-dependent memory (CDM) is the effect whereby information is retrieved more accurately in the presence of the contextual information that was present during encoding than in the absence of that contextual information. Most previous CDM experiments have focused on spatial location, but contexts such as sights, smells, and sounds have also been shown to be effective mnemonic cues, although the research is more limited. In relation to auditory contexts, much of the previous research has focused on music and on adults. We were interested in determining whether auditory CDM effects could be found in a classroom setting in school-aged children using background noises. Across two experiments we found that the reinstatement of the auditory context improved memory performance for 2nd, 3rd, and 5th grade students. Sounds, not just musical pieces, are stored in memory and can be effective contextual mnemonic cues. Further, (auditory) CDM effects can be found in young children. Teachers should be aware of the influence of contextual auditory cues in the classroom setting, and how this information is stored along with the focus of the teaching lesson.

Weight status or weight stigma? Obesity stereotypes—Not excess weight—Reduce working memory in school-aged children

The high prevalence of childhood obesity has drawn increasing attention to the neurocognitive impairments associated with excess weight, and evidence has accumulated of a progressive decline in working memory at increasing levels of children’s Body Mass Index (BMI). However, obesity is also a highly stigmatizing condition, and pervasive societal stereotypes depict individuals with obesity as less intelligent than those with average weight. For this reason, we investigated whether stereotype threat (i.e., the fear of confirming a negative stereotype attached to one’s social groups) contributes to working memory impairments in children with excess weight. By applying a consolidated paradigm in stereotype threat research, primary school-age children (N = 176) performed a computerized working memory task that was alternatively labeled as diagnostic (i.e., stereotype-threatening) or nondiagnostic (i.e., non-stereotype-threatening) of their intellectual ability. Results confirmed that working memory decreased at increasing levels of BMI in the stereotype-threatening condition, whereas the relation between body weight and working memory was null when task diagnosticity was removed. This effect was not further moderated by children’s direct experiences of weight-based stigmatization or by their personal endorsement of the obesity stereotype about intelligence. These findings suggest that vulnerability to weight-related stereotype threat emerges early in life and may contribute to working memory deficits in children with obesity.

Evidence for intact melodic and rhythmic perception in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

BackgroundAutism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental condition characterized by socio-communicative difficulties and restricted patterns of behavior. Despite these challenges, some individuals with ASD have preserved or even enhanced sensory skills, for example in the case of music. As such, music provides a key way to study sensory processing and individual differences in ASD. However, current studies of music perception in ASD have mixed results. MethodsThis study sought to examine music perception in terms of melodic pitch, rhythm, and memory in school-age children with ASD compared to typically-developing (TD) children. Music perception was investigated as a function of verbal and non-verbal IQ, age, and ASD social symptom severity. ResultsChildren with ASD performed similar to TD children on melodic pitch perception, rhythm perception and melodic memory. Melodic pitch perception in particular was strongly associated with non-verbal cognitive abilities in the ASD group. Similar effects of age on performance were observed in ASD and TD; in particular, rhythm discrimination increased with age in both groups. Music perception in ASD was not associated with ASD social symptom severity. DiscussionThese findings provide further evidence for intact melodic and rhythmic perception in children with ASD. In addition, music perception abilities were related to non-verbal cognitive ability and age in ASD, and not with ASD social symptom severity. This research provides a better understanding of individual differences in auditory processing, helps to better define phenotypes in ASD, and can guide future studies on the effects of music therapy in ASD.

Introduction to the Clinical Forum: Working Memory in School-Age Children.

The purpose of this article is to introduce the LSHSS Clinical Forum: Working Memory in School-Age Children. All the articles in this clinical forum concern the nature of working memory and its relationship to language and academic skills. The introduction provides a basic overview of working memory and its importance for explicit and implicit learning and highlights the topics of the 8 articles that comprise the clinical forum. The articles in this clinical forum provide readers with important information about the current state of our understanding of working memory and its importance for understanding the language and academic skills of school-age children developing typically and those with language and learning difficulties. Articles in this forum also address the practical implications of this knowledge for assessment and intervention.

Memory and potential correlates among children in Jordan

BackgroundCognitive functioning hugely affects the performance of tasks of different complexity. Memory, one of the most important cognitive skills, allows children to practice and acquire necessary skills and knowledge and interact with the surrounding environment. Therefore, it is crucial to study the factors that influence the memory of children. The main purpose of his study was to investigate different variables related to memory in school aged children (5–9 years, N = 434).MethodsParents of the participants provided information about child’s daily behavior, child’s school academic achievement, work and family income data and demographics. Memory skills in children were assessed by using the Leiter International Performance Scale -Revised.ResultsThe score of memory increased 2.53 points with upsurge in maternal occupation level, 3.08 points when the child ate breakfast and 4.51 points when the child daily slept nine hours and more. By contrast, increased family income and smoking by father resulted in decreased scores in memory.ConclusionScreening for and understanding of memory and relevant factors are vital for broad understanding of children’s capabilities and weaknesses as well as for developing appropriate interventions.

Protracted hippocampal development is associated with age-related improvements in memory during early childhood

The hippocampus is a structure that is critical for memory. Previous studies have shown that age-related differences in specialization along the longitudinal axis of this structure (i.e., subregions) and within its internal circuitry (i.e., subfields) relate to age-related improvements in memory in school-age children and adults. However, the influence of age on hippocampal development and its relations with memory ability earlier in life remains under-investigated. This study examined effects of age and sex on hippocampal subregion (i.e., head, body, tail) and subfield (i.e., subiculum, CA1, CA2-4/DG) volumes, and their relations with memory, using a large sample of 4- to 8-year-old children. Results examining hippocampal subregions suggest influences of both age and sex on the hippocampal head during early childhood. Results examining subfields within hippocampal head suggest these age effects may arise from CA1, whereas sex differences may arise from subiculum and CA2-4/DG. Memory ability was not associated with hippocampal subregion volume but was associated with subfield volume. Specifically, within the hippocampal head, relations between memory and CA1 were moderated by age; in younger children bigger was better, whereas in older children smaller was superior. Within the hippocampal body, smaller CA1 and larger CA2-4/DG contributed to better memory performance across all ages. Together, these results shed light on hippocampal development during early childhood and support claims that the prolonged developmental trajectory of the hippocampus contributes to memory development early in life.

The role of declarative and procedural metamemory in event-based prospective memory in school-aged children

Prospective memory (PM) develops considerably during the primary school years (7 or 8years of age). Developmental changes have been mainly related to executive functions, although it has been recently suggested that PM would also potentially benefit from metamemory (MM). To date, only procedural MM, operationalized as performance predictions, has been investigated in relation to PM, whereas declarative MM has remained unexplored. Adults’ performance has been shown to improve with predictions, but only in a resource-demanding (i.e., categorical) PM task rather than a more automatic (i.e., specific) one. The aim of the current investigation was to study whether PM performance of 7-year-old children (N=59) would benefit from performance predictions. Thus, half of the children predicted their performance and half of them received standard instructions for two PM tasks: one including categorical PM targets and one including specific ones. To investigate the processes underlying the retrieval of PM targets and the effect of predictions, we obtained measures for declarative MM, inhibitory control, and working memory (WM). Results revealed that children benefitted from performance predictions in the categorical PM task but not in the specific one. This advantage caused slower ongoing task response times, suggesting that strategic monitoring processes were enhanced. Moreover, PM performance was related to WM capacity and declarative MM. However, declarative MM mainly predicted PM advantage in the prediction group, showing that children with high MM knowledge benefitted especially from performance predictions. These findings are the first showing the important relation among procedural MM, declarative MM, and PM in school-aged children.

Working memory in school-age children with and without a persistent speech sound disorder

Purpose: The aim of this study was to explore the role of working memory processes as a possible cognitive underpinning of persistent speech sound disorders (SSD).Method: Forty school-aged children were enrolled; 20 children with persistent SSD (P-SSD) and 20 typically developing children. Children participated in three working memory tasks – one to target each of the components in Baddeley’s working memory model: phonological loop, visual spatial sketchpad and central executive.Result: Children with P-SSD performed poorly only on the phonological loop tasks compared to their typically developing age-matched peers. However, mediation analyses revealed that the relation between working memory and a P-SSD was reliant upon nonverbal intelligence.Conclusion: These results suggest that co-morbid low-average nonverbal intelligence are linked to poor working memory in children with P-SSD. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed.