Megalopolis Basin Research Articles

The expression of the MIS 12 glacial stage in Southeastern Europe and its impact over the Middle Pleistocene hominins in Megalopolis Basin (Greece)

Southern Europe is hypothesized to have acted as a glacial refugium for hominin populations during the Pleistocene. Of particular importance is South-East Europe, which most likely played a dual role, both as refugium and dispersal corridor, especially during the Middle Pleistocene glaciations, when drastic climatic conditions led to major sea level drops in the Aegean. However, little is known about the palaeoenvironmental conditions at the time of hominin presence in this region, making these hypotheses difficult to test. Here we analyze biomarker data and leaf wax stable isotopic compositions of the MIS 12 Lower Palaeolithic site Marathousa 1 (Megalopolis Basin, Greece) to assess the climatic conditions accompanying the time of hominin presence in the area. Our data indicate a major cooling affecting the north Mediterranean/Aegean domain during this time interval, with lowest temperatures recorded between ∼440–432 ka. The glacial peak is associated with changes in vegetation (i.e., from more forested to more open landscape), reduction of humidity and water availability (i.e., moisture depletion, increased evaporation). Hominins are present at the Marathousa 1 location at the end of this interval (434–432 ka), confirming that the Megalopolis Basin served as a refugium for hunter-gatherer groups during periods of harsh climatic conditions. Additionally, the progressive cooling is associated with an important sedimentary hiatus between ∼465–440 ka reflected in all circum-Mediterranean records (both marine and continental), indicating a regional impact of the MIS 12 glaciation over surface processes.

The lithic assemblages from the Palaeolithic survey research in the Megalopolis Basin, Greece

The lithic assemblages from the Palaeolithic survey research in the Megalopolis Basin, Greece

Life-history of Palaeoloxodon antiquus reveals Middle Pleistocene glacial refugium in the Megalopolis basin, Greece

The Balkans are considered a major glacial refugium where flora and fauna survived glacial periods and repopulated the rest of Europe during interglacials. While it is also thought to have harboured Pleistocene human populations, evidence linking human activity, paleoenvironmental indicators and a secure temporal placement to glacial periods is scant. Here, we present the first intra-tooth multi-isotope analysis for the European straight-tusked elephant Palaeoloxodon antiquus, on an adult male individual excavated in association with lithic artefacts at the MIS 12 site Marathousa 1 (Megalopolis basin, Greece). The studied find also exhibits anthropogenic modifications, providing direct evidence of hominin presence. We employed strontium, carbon and oxygen isotope analysis on enamel bioapatite to investigate its foraging and mobility behaviour, using a sequential sampling strategy along the tooth growth axis of the third upper molar, to assess ecological changes during the last decade of life. We found a geographically restricted range, in a C3-dominated open woodland environment, and relatively stable conditions over the examined timeframe. Our results show that, despite the severity of the MIS 12 glacial, the Megalopolis basin sustained a mesic habitat, sufficient plant cover and limited seasonal fluctuations in resource availability, pointing to its role as a glacial refugium for both fauna and hominins.

First record of Macaca (Cercopithecidae, Primates) in the Middle Pleistocene of Greece

In this article, we describe an almost complete macaque mandible from the Middle Pleistocene locality Marathousa 1 in the Megalopolis Basin of southern Greece. The mandible belonged to a male individual of advanced ontogenetic age and of estimated body mass ∼13 kg. Comparative metric analysis of its teeth permits its attribution to the Barbary macaque Macaca sylvanus, a species that was geographically widely distributed in Western Eurasia during the Plio-Pleistocene. The dental dimensions of the Marathousa 1 macaque fit better within the variation of the Early Pleistocene M. s. florentina and the Middle to Late Pleistocene M. s. pliocena rather than with the extant representative M. s. sylvanus. Moreover, principal component analysis reveals a better match with M. s. pliocena. However, because no clear-cut diagnostic criteria have been defined to differentiate these European fossil subspecies, we attribute the Marathousa 1 specimen to M. s. cf. pliocena, in agreement with the chronology of the locality. Previously known only from the Early Pleistocene of Greece by some isolated teeth, this is the first record of Macaca in the Middle Pleistocene of the country and one of very few in the eastern sector of the peri-Mediterranean region. We discuss the presence of macaques in the paleolake environment of Marathousa 1, as well as their predation risks from both carnivores and hominins present at the locality.

Lake-Level Changes and Their Paleo-Climatic Implications at the MIS12 Lower Paleolithic (Middle Pleistocene) Site Marathousa 1, Greece

Lithics and cut-marked mammal bones, excavated from the paleo-lake Marathousa 1 (MAR-1) sediments in the Megalopolis Basin, southern Greece, indicate traces of hominin activity occurring along a paleo-shoreline ca. 444,000 years (444 ka) ago. However, the local environment and climatic conditions promoting hominin activity in the area during the MIS12 glacial remain largely unknown. In order to reconstruct the paleo-environment including paleo-lake levels and governing paleo-climatic factors on a high temporal resolution, we analyzed a 6-meter-long sediment sequence from the archeological site MAR-1 and a Bayesian age model was computed for a better age constrain of the different sedimentary units. A multiproxy approach was applied using ostracods, sponge spicules, diatoms, grain sizes, total organic carbon, total inorganic carbon and conventional X-ray fluorescence analysis. The results from the site represent a protected region surrounded by high mountains under the constant influence of water, either as a shallow partly anoxic water body surrounded by reed belts (>463–457 ka, <434–427 ka), a riverine-lake deltaic system (∼457–448 ka), a floodplain (∼448–444 ka) or a seasonal freshwater pond (∼444–436 ka). The local changes of water levels resemble large trends and rhythms of regional records from the Mediterranean and appear to directly respond to sea surface temperature (SST) changes of the North Atlantic. In particular, when the SSTs are high, more moisture reaches the study area and vice versa. Additional water reaches MAR-1 through melting of the surrounding glaciers after brief warm phases during MIS12 in the Mediterranean realm, which leads to the formation of smaller fresh water ponds, where also the horizon of the excavated remains is placed. Such ponds, rich in ostracods and other microorganisms, provided mammals and humans valuable resources, such as potable water, a wide range of plant species and hunting opportunities. These deposits therefore bear a high archeological potential. The results from our study suggest that the Megalopolis Basin could have served as a refugium for hominins and other organisms due to its capacity to retain freshwater bodies during glacial and interglacial periods.

Macaca ulna from new excavations at the Notarchirico Acheulean site (Middle Pleistocene, Venosa, southern Italy)

In this article, we describe an almost complete macaque mandible from the Middle Pleistocene locality Marathousa 1 in the Megalopolis Basin of southern Greece. The mandible belonged to a male individual of advanced ontogenetic age and of estimated body mass ∼13 kg. Comparative metric analysis of its teeth permits its attribution to the Barbary macaque Macaca sylvanus, a species that was geographically widely distributed in Western Eurasia during the Plio-Pleistocene. The dental dimensions of the Marathousa 1 macaque fit better within the variation of the Early Pleistocene M. s. florentina and the Middle to Late Pleistocene M. s. pliocena rather than with the extant representative M. s. sylvanus. Moreover, principal component analysis reveals a better match with M. s. pliocena. However, because no clear-cut diagnostic criteria have been defined to differentiate these European fossil subspecies, we attribute the Marathousa 1 specimen to M. s. cf. pliocena, in agreement with the chronology of the locality. Previously known only from the Early Pleistocene of Greece by some isolated teeth, this is the first record of Macaca in the Middle Pleistocene of the country and one of very few in the eastern sector of the peri-Mediterranean region. We discuss the presence of macaques in the paleolake environment of Marathousa 1, as well as their predation risks from both carnivores and hominins present at the locality.

ESR Dating Ungulate Teeth and Molluscs from the Paleolithic Site Marathousa 1, Megalopolis Basin, Greece

At 37°24′ N 22°8′ E, the Megalopolis Basin lies in the central Peloponnese Peninsula, southwestern Greece. In the Megalopolis Basin at ~350 m amsl, the Paleolithic site, Marathousa 1, sits within a palustrine/lacustrine clastic package between Lignite Seams III and II, that both likely correlate with interglacial periods. At Marathousa 1, immediately below Lignite Seam III, lies a clayey-silty sand layer with a horizon rich in molluscs ranging from ~20–40 cm thick. About 0.8–1.3 m below the shell-rich horizon (SRH), lacustrine silty to muddy sands rich in organic matter yielded Paleolithic lithic artefacts associated with Middle Pleistocene fauna, some with cut marks and possible bone knapping, found within palustrine/lacustrine clastic deposits. Since ESR (electron spin resonance) can date teeth and molluscs aged >2 Ma, two bivalve samples, AM66 and AM65, five subsamples from a cervid molar, AT39, and one subsample from another cervid molar, AT68, were independently dated by ESR from Marathousa 1. To calculate the ages, time-averaged cosmic and time- and volumetrically-averaged sedimentary dose rates were calculated using past water depths and sedimentation rates as determined from paleontological and geological criteria. Found in the SRH in Layer UA2, AM66 and AM65 averaged 488 ± 37 ka, which correlates with MIS 13a. Because the bivalves sat stratigraphically above the artefacts and mammalian fossils, their ages constrain the ESR ages for the teeth deposited below. Lying on the unconformity at the base of Layer UA3c with UA4, and its correlative unconformity at the Layer UB4c/UB5 boundary, sat the dated teeth from large mammals. Because the bones in the Palaeoloxodon antiquus skeleton lay in quasi-anatomical association, the likelihood for fossil reworking on the Layer UB3c/UB4 surface is low. Isochron analysis suggests that using a U uptake model with p = 2 provides the most accurate ages for AT39. With p = 2, AT39 dates to 503 ± 13 ka, while AT68 dates to 512 ± 34 ka. Nonetheless, two to three more teeth and molluscs should be dated to confirm these ages, when more samples suitable for ESR dating are found. Both tooth ages correlate well with early MIS 13, an interglacial period with cooler mean global temperatures compared to MIS 11 or 9. Assuming that the archaeological site formed in one event, rather than as a palimpsest, the data suggest that hominins processed elephant and other faunal carcasses along the shores of a shallow lake or marsh in the Megalopolis Basin at 503 ± 12 ka. Between the two horizons dated here, their sedimentation rate averaged 4.8 ± 1.8 to 7.8 ± 2.9 cm/ka.

The ornithological remains from Marathousa 1 (Middle Pleistocene; Megalopolis Basin, Greece)

In the Middle Pleistocene open-air locality Marathousa 1 (Megalopolis Basin, Peloponnese, Greece), lithic artefacts are spatially and stratigraphically associated with faunal remains. Among the latter, birds are known by over 120 skeletal elements and represent an important part of the vertebrate fauna. The majority of them are identified as anseriform birds of various sizes, from swan size (Cygnus olor) to teal size (Anas crecca). The next largest group is gruiform birds, while, at least one small-sized passerine is also present (cf. Cinclus cinclus). A number of taxa are recorded for the first time in the Pleistocene of Greece. The taphonomic analysis of the deposit points to a minimal transfer of the avian skeletal elements, accumulated possibly through the combined action of some raptors and natural transfer of unconsumed avian remains. The palaeoecological analysis reveals a rich lakeshore environment, under temperate climatic conditions, that would support large numbers of aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates and small vertebrates. The avifaunal composition and its richness demonstrate the importance of the palaeolake system, which would have contributed to the development of habitats capable of supporting a variety of species including hominins.

The ornithological remains from Marathousa 1 (Middle Pleistocene; Megalopolis Basin, Greece)

The ornithological remains from Marathousa 1 (Middle Pleistocene; Megalopolis Basin, Greece)

The Lower Palaeolithic site of Marathousa 1, Megalopolis, Greece: Overview of the evidence

Marathousa 1 is a Lower Palaeolithic open-air site located in the Megalopolis basin, an area in Southern Greece known for its fossiliferous sediments. Mining activities in the basin uncovered a thick sequence of Middle Pleistocene lacustrine deposits representing the environment of a palaeolake. Marathousa 1 was discovered in 2013 during a targeted palaeoanthropological survey and excavated subsequently by an interdisciplinary team from the Ephoreia of Palaeoanthropology–Speleology of Greece and the University of Tübingen, Germany. This article presents results from the ongoing investigation and reviews the state of knowledge about the site.Systematic excavations during five field seasons have exposed a total of 72 m2 and revealed a partial skeleton of the elephant Palaeoloxodon antiquus and remains of other large mammals in spatial and stratigraphic association with a “small tool” lithic assemblage. Faunal and taphonomic studies indicate the presence of cut-marks and percussion damage on elephant and other large mammal bones. The study of site formation processes, together with taphonomic and geostatistic spatial analyses confirm the association of fossil and hominin activity remains and the stratigraphic integrity of the site. Radiometric dating, geological and biostratigraphical evidence suggest that hominin activity at the site occurred between 0.5 and 0.4 Ma.Marathousa 1 is the oldest currently known archaeological site in Greece and the only Lower Palaeolithic butchering site in the Southern Balkans. It is also a key site for documenting high resolution palaeoclimatic, palaeoenvironmental and cultural records of a geographical area that potentially acted as a refugium during the successive waves of hominin colonization of Europe.

Optical dating of K-feldspar grains from Middle Pleistocene lacustrine sediment at Marathousa 1 (Greece)

Post-infrared infrared stimulated luminescence (pIRIR) measurements are reported for multiple aliquots of potassium-rich feldspar grains from sedimentary deposits at Marathousa 1 and Choremi Mine in the Megalopolis Basin in southern Greece. Ages were obtained for 9 samples from the deposits that over- and underlie as well as include the archaeological and palaeontological deposits at Marathousa 1. These sediments are sandwiched between lignite seams II and III and thought to represent sediment deposition during a single glacial period. A single age was obtained for a sample from Choremi mine. The equivalent dose estimates are based on a newly developed method presented elsewhere, and environmental dose rate determinations followed standard procedures. A specific focus of this paper is the determination of a representative estimate of time-averaged palaeo-water content of the organic and sand-rich deposits and the impact of porosity and compaction on these estimates. Ages are presented using two water content scenarios. These final ages have relatively large uncertainties, making it difficult to accurately assign deposition to a single oxygen isotope stage (OIS). Taking uncertainty into account, sediment deposition at Marathousa 1 occur sometime during OIS 12 and 11 and at Choremi mine during MIS 8. When combined with other proxy information, these results support the interpretation that the peat deposits (represented by lignite seams II and III) were deposited during warm interglacial periods, and that the intervening clastic materials were deposited during glacial periods. In this case, the ages are best interpreted as supporting deposition of sediments during MIS12. This is consistent with one of the proposed age models, but younger than the other.

Magnetostratigraphic and chronostratigraphic constraints on the Marathousa 1 Lower Palaeolithic site and the Middle Pleistocene deposits of the Megalopolis basin, Greece

We investigated the magnetostratigraphy of the Megalopolis basin in central Peloponnese, Greece, which encompasses a record of Pleistocene lacustrine and lignite-bearing sedimentation, where lithic tools stratigraphically associated with remnants of an almost complete skeleton of Palaeoloxodon antiquus were recently found at the Marathousa 1 site. A magnetic polarity reversal was observed within a ∼10 m-thick lignite seam at the base of the (exposed) stratigraphic sequence, and it was interpreted as a record of the Brunhes/Matuyama boundary (0.78 Ma). Assuming that lignite seams were deposited generally under warm and humid climate conditions, this finding is in agreement with data from the literature indicating that the Brunhes/Matuyama boundary occurs within warm Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 19. We then attempted to correlate the remainder of the lacustrine and lignite-bearing intervals above the Brunhes/Matuyama boundary to a standard oxygen isotope record of Pleistocene climate variability. Two age models of sedimentation were generated: according to preferred option #1, the artifact-bearing stratigraphic units of the Marathousa 1 site should have an age between ∼0.48 Ma and ∼0.42 Ma, while according to alternative option #2, the archaeological layers would have an age between ∼0.56 Ma and ∼0.54 Ma. Option #1 is at present considered the preferred option as it is in closer agreement with preliminary post-IR IRSL and ESR dates from the Marathousa 1 site. This age model has been exported to other areas of the Megalopolis basin, where additional archaeological and/or palaeontological sites could be present, by means of correlations to lithostratigraphic logs derived from commercial drill cores taken in the 1960s and 1970s for lignite exploitation.

In search of Pleistocene remains at the Gates of Europe: directed surface survey of the Megalopolis Basin (Greece)

In search of Pleistocene remains at the Gates of Europe: directed surface survey of the Megalopolis Basin (Greece)

In search of Pleistocene remains at the Gates of Europe: Directed surface survey of the Megalopolis Basin (Greece)

The PaGE Project survey of the Megalopolis Basin (Arcadia, Greece), conducted in 2012–2013 over a period of two field seasons, was an intensive, target-oriented surface survey of Pleistocene sediments. Implementing a modified version of field methods applied in our survey of cave systems and Pleistocene cave sediments, the main goal of this systematic research focused on the identification of intact stratified remains from either stratigraphic sections or on remnants of exposed ancient surfaces. The project area consisted of the active open-cast lignite mine of Megalopolis, where access to recently exposed sections were abundant, and of the alluvial fans in the surrounding uplands, where hominins exploited the commanding views of the ancient lake. This paper presents the survey results and applied field methods for conducting archaeological research within the remnants of an Early to Middle Pleistocene ancient lake system. The project succeeded in identifying at least five surface and stratified sites, the latter including the Lower Paleolithic remains of Marathousa-1. This site is currently under investigation, but has already yielded the oldest chronometrically dated archaeological remains in Greece. Therefore, PaGE has not only managed to place mainland Greece on the Lower Paleolithic map of Europe, but has also successfully tested a methodological corpus for survey research targeting the earliest phases of the Paleolithic period in a Mediterranean landscape.

Sedimentology and micromorphology of the Lower Palaeolithic lakeshore site Marathousa 1, Megalopolis basin, Greece

The present study describes the sedimentology and formation processes of the archaeological site Marathousa 1, part of a Pleistocene lignite-bearing succession at the Megalopolis basin (Southern Greece). The sedimentary sequence of the site comprises about 4–5 m lacustrine and fluviolacustrine clastic deposits found between Lignite Seam II and III. The lower part of this sequence is characterized by relatively high rate subaqueous sedimentation of bedded sands and silts with local evidence of slumping and liquefaction attributed to a seismic event. This part of the sequence contains fluctuating but generally low organic and carbonate content probably associated with cold and arid conditions of a glacial period. The upper part of the sequence follows a major hiatus attributed to exposure and erosion. A series of erosional bounded depositional units are observed in this sequence suggesting important water-level fluctuations. The subaqueous emplacement of the deposits is attributed to subaerial flood-generated, organic- and carbonate-rich dilute mudflows and hyperconcentrated flows. Organic-rich sedimentation culminates with the formation of the overlying lignite seam. This change is interpreted as a gradual return to warmer and humid conditions of an interglacial period.The fossiliferous and cultural levels at Marathousa 1 are associated with the major erosional and exposed surface found in the upper part of the sequence. This surface was part of an extensive mudflat surrounding the lake shore at that time. The overlying mudflows have locally redistributed and buried the archaeological remains, thus preserving this very important butchering site.

Beyond maps: Patterns of formation processes at the Middle Pleistocene open-air site of Marathousa 1, Megalopolis basin, Greece

Beyond maps: Patterns of formation processes at the Middle Pleistocene open-air site of Marathousa 1, Megalopolis basin, Greece

Beyond maps: Patterns of formation processes at the Middle Pleistocene open-air site of Marathousa 1, Megalopolis basin, Greece

Recent excavations at the Middle Pleistocene open-air site of Marathousa 1 have unearthed in one of the two investigated areas (Area A) a partial skeleton of a single individual of Palaeoloxodon antiquus and other faunal remains in spatial and stratigraphic association with lithic artefacts. In Area B, a much higher number of lithic artefacts was collected, spatially and stratigraphically associated also with faunal remains. The two areas are stratigraphically correlated, the main fossiliferous layers representing an en mass depositional process in a lake margin context. Evidence of butchering (cut-marks) has been identified on bones of the elephant skeleton, as well on elephant and other mammal bones from Area B. However, due to the secondary deposition of the main find-bearing units, it is of primary importance to evaluate the degree and reliability of the spatial association of the lithic artefacts with the faunal remains. Indeed, spatial association does not necessarily imply causation, since natural syn- and post-depositional processes may equally produce spatial association. Assessing the degree and extent of post-depositional reworking processes is crucial to fully comprehend the archaeological record, and therefore to reliably interpret past human behaviours. The present study uses a comprehensive set of spatial statistics in order to disentangle the depositional processes behind the distribution of the archaeological and palaeontological record at Marathousa 1. Preliminary results of our analyses suggest that a high-energy erosional process, attributed to a hyperconcentrated flow deposited at the margin of a swamp, reworked an autochthonous, exposed or slightly buried, scatter of lithic artefacts and faunal remains. Minor reworking and substantial spatial association of the lithic and faunal assemblages support the current interpretation of Marathousa 1 as a butchering site.

The skeleton of a straight-tusked elephant (Palaeoloxodon antiquus) and other large mammals from the Middle Pleistocene butchering locality Marathousa 1 (Megalopolis Basin, Greece): preliminary results

In this article, we present the first results on the large mammal fauna from the new open-air Lower Palaeolithic locality Marathousa 1 (MAR-1) (Megalopolis Basin, Peloponnesus, Greece). MAR-1 belongs to the Marathousa Member of the Choremi Formation and its large mammal faunal list (collection 2013–2016) includes the castorid Castor fiber, the mustelids Mustela sp. and Lutra simplicidens, the felid Felis sp., the canids Vulpes sp. and Canis sp., the elephantid Palaeoloxodon antiquus, the hippopotamid Hippopotamus antiquus, the bovid Bison sp., and the cervids Dama sp. and Cervus elaphus. This faunal association is common in the Galerian (Middle Pleistocene) mammal communities of Europe (ca. 0.9–0.4 Ma). The MAR-1 fauna is consistent with a temperate climate and is indicative of a landscape with substantial woodland components with more open areas, close to permanent and large freshwater bodies. Of particular interest are an elephant cranium and numerous postcranial elements, which were found in close anatomical association and are attributed to a single individual of the straight-tusked elephant Palaeoloxodon antiquus. The skeleton belonged to a male individual in its late adulthood close to or in its sixties, with live skeletal height around 3.7 m at the shoulder and body mass around 9.0 tonnes. The good state of preservation of the MAR-1 bones allows the identification of taphonomic modifications. Cut marks on the elephant skeleton, and on other elephant and mammal bones, indicate human exploitation by means of butchering activities, in accordance with the traits of the lithic assemblage and its spatial association with the bones. Carnivore activity is also recorded on some elephant and cervid bones. Marathousa 1 is among the oldest elephant butchering sites in Europe and the only one known in Southeastern Europe.

Spatial and vertical distribution and risk assessment of natural radionuclides in soils surrounding the lignite-fired power plants in Megalopolis basin, Greece

Twenty soil profile samples and fourteen surface soil samples collected from the vicinity of the lignite-fired power plants in the Megalopolis basin (Greece) were analysed for their natural radionuclide concentration and (137)Cs, since fossil fuels are associated with naturally occurring radioactive materials and hence with radiological impact. No significant enhancement of surface soil radioactivity levels in the vicinity of lignite-fired plants was observed. A downcore decreasing trend of (137)Cs was observed in a number of cores reflecting its atmospheric origin, whereas the uniform distribution observed in a number of other cores gave information on the mechanical alteration of the soil. The average dose rate value was found to be 63 ± 22 nGy h(-1), while the annual average effective dose from the terrestrial gamma radiation was found to be 0.08 ± 0.03 mSv.

First evidence of Macaca sylvanus (Primates, Cercopithecidae) from the Late Pleistocene of Lezetxiki II cave (Basque Country, Spain)

In this article, we describe an almost complete macaque mandible from the Middle Pleistocene locality Marathousa 1 in the Megalopolis Basin of southern Greece. The mandible belonged to a male individual of advanced ontogenetic age and of estimated body mass ∼13 kg. Comparative metric analysis of its teeth permits its attribution to the Barbary macaque Macaca sylvanus, a species that was geographically widely distributed in Western Eurasia during the Plio-Pleistocene. The dental dimensions of the Marathousa 1 macaque fit better within the variation of the Early Pleistocene M. s. florentina and the Middle to Late Pleistocene M. s. pliocena rather than with the extant representative M. s. sylvanus. Moreover, principal component analysis reveals a better match with M. s. pliocena. However, because no clear-cut diagnostic criteria have been defined to differentiate these European fossil subspecies, we attribute the Marathousa 1 specimen to M. s. cf. pliocena, in agreement with the chronology of the locality. Previously known only from the Early Pleistocene of Greece by some isolated teeth, this is the first record of Macaca in the Middle Pleistocene of the country and one of very few in the eastern sector of the peri-Mediterranean region. We discuss the presence of macaques in the paleolake environment of Marathousa 1, as well as their predation risks from both carnivores and hominins present at the locality.