Megajoules Research Articles

Feed balances for ruminant livestock: gridded estimates for data−constrained regions

Demand for animal−source foods and livestock feed are forecast to increase across sub-Saharan Africa. In this context, there is a need to estimate the availability of livestock feed to support decision−making at local, sub-national and national levels. In this study, we assess feed balances for ruminant livestock in Ethiopia and Burkina Faso. Feed availability was estimated using remotely sensed products and detailed feed composition data. Feed requirements were estimated for maintenance, growth, lactation, gestation and locomotion using a data−intensive model. Biomass available as animal feed was estimated to be 8.6 tonnes of DM per hectare in the Ethiopian highlands and midlands, 3.2 tonnes DM per hectare in the Ethiopian lowlands, 2.9 tonnes DM per hectare in Burkina Faso’s Sudanian agro-ecological zone and 1.0 tonne DM per hectare in the Sahel. The energy requirements of lactating cows were estimated to be 62.1 Megajoules (MJs) per animal per day in the Ethiopian highlands and midlands, 62.7 MJ in the Ethiopian lowlands, 88.5 MJ in Burkina Faso’s Sudanian agro-ecological zone and 53.1 MJ per animal per day in the Sahel. Feed scarcity hotspots are most prominently located in the Ethiopian highlands and the Sahelian agro-ecological zone of Burkina Faso. Demand−side policy and investment initiatives can address hotspots by influencing herd sizes, nutritional requirements and herd mobility. Supply−side policy and investment initiatives can secure existing feed resources, develop new sources of feed and incentivise trade in feed resources. Improving feed balances will be of value to decision−makers with the aims of optimising livestock productivity, minimising exposure to climatic shocks and minimising greenhouse gas emission intensity.

Life-cycle impact assessment of hardwood forest resources in the eastern United States

To explore the carbon sequestration potential of hardwood forests in the eastern United States, the forest vegetation simulator (FVS) and life cycle assessment (LCA) were integrated to analyze the forest carbon dynamics for the four subregions of the eastern United States: northeast (NE), mid-Atlantic (MA), southeast (SE), and north central (NC). This study quantitatively assessed current forest management practices for timber production and their associated life-cycle environmental impacts. The system boundary was selected to be consistent with the A1 module (extraction and upstream production) required by an Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) for wood products. The results indicate that uneven-aged (UA) forest management yields higher carbon stocks and growth than even-aged (EA) management across all subregions. In contrast, clearcutting under EA management results in higher carbon removal. It was found that fuel consumption-related greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for manual and mechanized harvesting systems for both management types ranged between 9.13 and 12.15 kg of CO2 equivalent per cubic meter (kg CO2e/m3), with an average of 11 kg CO2e/m3 of hardwood timber harvested across all subregions. It is estimated that 63–187 megajoules (MJ) of energy is needed to produce 1 m3 of hardwood sawlogs. The extraction and loading processes contributed more to the total GHG emissions than the felling and processing within the system boundary. The study concludes that UA management led to higher forest carbon and net carbon balance (excluding carbon stock) compared to EA management in the eastern U.S. hardwood forests. Forest management strategies should be determined based on the ecological goal of increasing forest carbon stock and the economic goal of maximizing revenue from the timber market. The findings of this study have implications for policymakers and forest managers in mitigating climate change and carbon sequestration through sustainable forest management for timber production.

Testing the effectiveness of household fuel conservation strategies: Policy implications for increasing the affordability of exclusive clean cooking

BackgroundExclusive clean fuel use is essential for realizing health and other benefits but is often unaffordable. Decreasing household-level fuel needs could make exclusive clean fuel use more affordable, but there is a lack of knowledge on the amount of fuel savings that could be achieved through fuel conservation behaviors relevant to rural settings in low- and middle-income countries. MethodsWithin a trial in Peru, we trained a random half of intervention participants, who had previously received a liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) stove and were purchasing their own fuel, on fuel conservation strategies. We measured the amount of fuel and mega joules (MJ) of energy consumed by all participants, including control participants who were receiving free fuel from the trial. We administered surveys on fuel conservation behaviors and assigned a score based on the number of behaviors performed. ResultsIntervention participants with the training had a slightly higher conservation score than those without (7.2 vs. 6.6 points; p = 0.07). Across all participants, average daily energy consumption decreased by 9.5 MJ for each 1-point increase in conservation score (p < 0.001). Among households who used exclusively LPG (n = 99), each 1-point increase in conservation score was associated with a 0.04 kg decrease in LPG consumption per household per day (p = 0.03). Using pressure cookers and heating water in the sun decreased energy use, while using clay pots and forgetting to close stove knobs increased energy use. ConclusionOur findings suggest that a household could save 1.16 kg of LPG per month for each additional fuel conservation behavior, for a maximum potential savings of 8.1 kg per month. Fuel conservation messaging could be integrated into national household energy policies to increase the affordability of exclusive clean fuel use, and subsequently achieve the environmental and health benefits that could accompany such a transition.

Low Carbon Building Design Optimization Based on Intelligent Energy Management System

The construction of relevant standards for building carbon emission assessment in China has just started, and the quantitative analysis method and evaluation system are still imperfect, which hinders the development of lowcarbon building design. Therefore, the use of intelligent energy management system is very necessary. The purpose of this paper is to explore the design optimization of low-carbon buildings based on intelligent energy management systems. Based on the proposed quantitative method of building carbon emission, this paper establishes the quota theoretical system of building carbon emission analysis, and develops the quota based carbon emission calculation software. Smart energy management system is a low-carbon energy-saving system based on the reference of largescale building energy-saving system and combined with energy consumption. It provides a fast and effective calculation tool for the quantitative evaluation of carbon emission of construction projects, so as to realize the carbon emission control and optimization in the early stage of architectural design and construction. On this basis, the evaluation, analysis and calculation method of building structure based on carbon reduction target is proposed, combined with the carbon emission quota management standard proposed in this paper. Taking small high-rise residential buildings as an example, this paper compares and analyzes different building structural systems from the perspectives of structural performance, economy and carbon emission level. It provides a reference for the design and evaluation of low-carbon building structures. The smart energy management system collects user energy use parameters. It uses time period and time sequence to obtain a large amount of data for analysis and integration, which provides users with intuitive energy consumption data. Compared with the traditional architectural design method, the industrialized construction method can save 589.22 megajoules (MJ) per square meter. Based on 29270 megajoules (MJ) per ton of standard coal, the construction area of the case is about 8000 m2, and the energy saving of residential buildings is 161.04 tons of standard coal. This research is of great significance in reducing the carbon emission intensity of buildings.

Current Progress in Optimising Sustainable Energy Recovery From Cattle Paunch Contents, a Slaughterhouse Waste Product

Paunch contents are the recalcitrant, lignocellulose-rich, partially-digested feed present in the rumen of ruminant animals. Cattle forage in Europe is primarily from perennial and Italian ryegrasses and/or white clover, so paunch contents from forage-fed cattle in Europe is enriched in these feedstuffs. Globally, due to its underutilisation, the potential energy in cattle paunch contents annually represents an energy loss of 23,216,548,750–27,804,250,000 Megajoules (MJ) and financial loss of up to ~€800,000,000. Therefore, this review aims to describe progress made to-date in optimising sustainable energy recovery from paunch contents. Furthermore, analyses to determine the economic feasibility/potential of recovering sustainable energy from paunch contents was carried out. The primary method used to recover sustainable energy from paunch contents to-date has involved biomethane production through anaerobic digestion (AD). The major bottleneck in its utilisation through AD is its recalcitrance, resulting in build-up of fibrous material. Pre-treatments partially degrade the lignocellulose in lignocellulose-rich wastes, reducing their recalcitrance. Enzyme systems could be inexpensive and more environmentally compatible than conventional solvent pre-treatments. A potential source of enzyme systems is the rumen microbiome, whose efficiency in lignocellulose degradation is attracting significant research interest. Therefore, the application of rumen fluid (liquid derived from dewatering of paunch contents) to improve biomethane production from AD of lignocellulosic wastes is included in this review. Analysis of a study where rumen fluid was used to pre-treat paper sludge from a paper mill prior to AD for biomethane production suggested economic feasibility for CHP combustion, with potential savings of ~€11,000 annually. Meta-genomic studies of bacterial/archaeal populations have been carried out to understand their ruminal functions. However, despite their importance in degrading lignocellulose in nature, rumen fungi remain comparatively under-investigated. Further investigation of rumen microbes, their cultivation and their enzyme systems, and the role of rumen fluid in degrading lignocellulosic wastes, could provide efficient pre-treatments and co-digestion strategies to maximise biomethane yield from a range of lignocellulosic wastes. This review describes current progress in optimising sustainable energy recovery from paunch contents, and the potential of rumen fluid as a pre-treatment and co-substrate to recover sustainable energy from lignocellulosic wastes using AD.

Environmental impacts, water footprint and cumulative energy demand of match industry in Pakistan.

A comprehensive life cycle assessment (LCA) was conducted for the matchsticks industry in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan to quantify environmental footprint, water footprint, cumulative energy use, and to identify improvement opportunities in the matchsticks manufacturing process. One carton of matchsticks was used as reference unit for this study. Foreground data was collected from the matchsticks industry through questionnaire surveys, personal meetings, and field measurements. The collected data was transformed into potential environmental impacts through the Centre for Environment Studies (CML) 2000 v.2.05 method present by default in the SimaPro v.9.1 software. Water footprint was calculated using methodology developed by Hoekstra et al., 2012 (water scarcity index) V1.02 and cumulative energy demand by SimaPro v.9.1 software. The results showed that transport of primary material (wood logs), sawn wood for matchsticks, red phosphorous, acrylic varnish, and kerosene fuel oil contributed to the overall environmental impacts. Transport of primary materials and sawn timber for matchsticks contributed significantly to abiotic depletion, global warming, eutrophication potential, ozone depletion, corrosion, human toxicity, and aquatic ecotoxicity effects. The total water footprint for manufacturing one carton of matchsticks was 0.265332 m3, whereas the total cumulative energy demand was 715.860 Mega Joules (MJ), mainly sourced from non-renewable fossil fuels (708.979 MJ). Scenario analysis was also conducted for 20% and 30% reduction in the primary material distance covered by trucks and revealed that reducing direct material transport distances could diminish environmental impacts and energy consumption. Therefore, environmental footprint could be minimized through diverting matchsticks industries freight from indigenous routes to high mobility highways and by promoting industrial forestry close to industrial zones in Pakistan. Many industries did not have emissions control systems, exceeding the permissible limit for emissions established by the National Environmental Quality Standards (NEQS) of Pakistan. Thus, installation of emissions control system could also diminish emissions from match industry in Pakistan.

Machine Learning for Prediction of Energy in Wheat Production

The global population growth has led to a considerable rise in demand for wheat. Today, the amount of energy consumption in agriculture has also increased due to the need for sufficient food for the growing population. Thus, agricultural policymakers in most countries rely on prediction models to influence food security policies. This research aims to predict and reduce the amount of energy consumption in wheat production. Data were collected from the farms of Estahban city in Fars province of Iran by the Jihad Agricultural Department’s experts for 20 years from 1994 to 2013. In this study, a novel prediction method based on consumed energy in the production period is proposed. The model is developed based on artificial intelligence to forecast the output energy in wheat production and uses extreme learning machine (ELM) and support vector regression (SVR). In the experimental stage, the value of elevation metrics for the EVM and ELM was reported to be equal to 0.000000409 and 0.9531, respectively. Total input energy (consumed) is found to be 1,460,503.1 Mega Joules (MJ), and output energy (produced wheat) is 1,401,011.945 MJ for the Estahban. The result indicates the superiority of the ELM model to enhance the decisions of the agricultural policymakers.

The energy requirements of racehorses in training.

The aim of this study was to estimate the energy requirements of Thoroughbred racehorses in active training for flat racing. Twenty-two Thoroughbred racehorses in England were measured over periods from 6 to 15 wk, which included periods of active race training and temporarily reduced training. Energy intake was determined by measuring daily feed consumption. Energy output was measured using heart rate monitors during 730 training sessions, relating heart rate (HR) to oxygen consumption (VO2) and converting VO2 to energy. Field maintenance requirements were calculated by deducting the marginal energy cost of training from energy input. The mean field maintenance expenditure during periods of active race training was 0.1731 megajoules (MJ) of metabolizable energy (ME)/kg of bodyweight (BW)/d (SD = 0.0174, CI = 0.0073, n = 22 horses, 193 wk). This result is 11% to 66% greater than the official guidance found in the United States, France, Germany, and the Netherlands. Heart rate monitoring revealed a mean energy expenditure for exercise of 0.0212 MJ ME/d (SD = 0.0049, CI = 0.0007, n = 22 horses) for racehorses in active race training, a result 70% to 82% below the official guidance. The total mean energy expenditure for racehorses in active race training was 0.1943 MJ ME/kg/d (SD = 0.0177, CI = 0.0078, n = 20 horses 193 wk), 4% to 22% less than the official guidance. Horses actively racing had a 12% higher maintenance requirement than those in training but not yet racing (P = 0.01). The 2- and 3-yr-old horses did not gain weight during active race training, but grew slowly during breaks in training. This study explores the factors affecting energy balance in racehorses, and provides updated findings for their maintenance and training requirements.

Implementation of Recycling Cigarette Butts in Lightweight Bricks and a Proposal for Ending the Littering of Cigarette Butts in Our Cities.

Our cities, parks, beaches, and oceans have been contaminated for many years with millions of tonnes of unsightly and toxic cigarette butts (CBs). This study presents and discusses some of the results of an ongoing study on recycling in fired-clay bricks. Energy savings: the energy value of CBs with remnant tobacco was found to be 16.5 MJ/kg. If just 2.5% of all bricks produced annually worldwide included 1% CB content, all of the CBs currently produced could be recycled in bricks, and it is estimated that global firing energy consumption could be reduced by approximately 20 billion MJ (megajoules). This approximately equates to the power used by one million homes in Victoria, Australia, every year. Bacteriological study: CBs were investigated for the presence of ten common bacteria in two pilot studies. Staphylococcus spp. and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were detected in fresh used CB samples, and Listeria spp. were detected in old used CB samples. All of the CB samples except the dried sample had significant counts of Bacillus spp. Some species of the detected bacteria in this study are pathogenic. Further confirmation and comprehensive microbiological study are needed in this area. The contact of naphthalene balls with CBs had a significant disinfecting effect on Bacillus spp. The implementation procedure for recycling CBs in bricks, odour from Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) emissions in CBs, sterilization methods, CB collection systems, and safety instructions were investigated, and they are discussed. Proposal: when considering the combined risks from many highly toxic chemicals and possible pathogens in cigarette butts, it is proposed that littering of this waste anywhere in cities and the environment be strictly prohibited and that offenders be heavily fined.

Environmental burdens of the comprehensive utilization of straw: Wheat straw utilization from a life-cycle perspective

Agricultural straw utilization has become a big concern in many countries with abundance of the production. While different comprehensive utilization methods have been proposed, the environmental aspects of these methods need to be examined to reduce the environmental burdens of agricultural straw disposal. By deploying life cycle assessment, this article evaluates the environmental impact of different wheat straw utilization methods, including soil incorporation, open burning, indoor incineration with energy recovery, combined electricity and energy recovery, conventional straw pulping, and a new type of straw pulping. The results show that the new type of straw pulping has the best environmental performance, while open burning has the worst. The performance of the new type of straw pulping is mainly attributed to its substitution for sulphate pulp and chemical fertilizers. New type of straw pulping has the best environmental performance for human health, ecosystem quality and resource impact categories, with corresponding −2.08E-03 DALY (Disability-Adjusted Life Years), −1.50E+03 PDF·m2·y (Potentially Disappeared Fraction of species over a certain amount of m2 during a certain amount of years) and −7.75E+03 MJ (Mega Joules) for these three impact categories. While soil incorporation has the smallest environmental impact in global warming impact category, with 2.33E+02 kg CO2-eq. Sound management of agricultural straw should combine different utilization methods. Policy interventions, such as high-quality straw leaving the field, are needed to deal with the substantial generation of agricultural straw.

Well-to-wheels total energy and GHG emissions of HCNG heavy-duty vehicles in China: Case of EEV qualified EURO 5 emissions scenario

Energy security and climate change are critical concerns in the present era. The booming of the vehicle population has worsened the environment and has caused severe air pollution problems, especially in urban areas. The utilization of hydrogen-enriched compressed natural gas in internal combustion engines shows abundant prospects for improved performance and reduced on-road emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants. This study aims to provide an insight to well-to-wheels environmental implications of the 20%HCNG fuel mixture in terms of total energy use, and greenhouse gas emissions per megajoules (MJ) of thermal energy output. The well-to-tank (WTT) impacts were evaluated using GREET 1 (2017). GREET 1 is a fuel cycle modeling tool developed by ‘Argonne national laboratory.’ GREET® is extensively used by researchers worldwide to analytically simulate energy use and emission output of various vehicle and fuel combinations. This study uses 12 prospective pathways of gaseous hydrogen production for analysis purposes. In the tank-to-wheels (TTW) phase, the 20%HCNG@EEV reduces the brake specific energy consumption (BSEC) by approximately 5%, and also decreases GHG emissions by 14% compared with 0%HCNG@EURO3. For simplicity, EURO5 is entitled as ‘EEV’ and has been excluded in most of the discussion, only highlighting ‘EEV,’ which abbreviates as ‘Enhanced Environmentally friendly Vehicles.’ For the entire well-to-wheels phase, this research work shows that all of the 20%HCNG@EEV pathways have lower total energy use and GHG emissions than 0%HCNG@EURO3 except the two pathways, such as grid electricity-to-hydrogen (without CO2 sequestration) and coal gasification-to-hydrogen (without CO2 sequestration). The WTW total energy and GHG emissions reduced by approximately 14% and 13%, respectively, with 20%HCNG@EEV based on the coke oven gas pathway compared with 0%HCNG@EURO3. It is essential to note that the use of cleaner feedstock for hydrogen, such as power-to-gas (P2G), biomass, coke oven gas (by-product), and natural gas shows tremendous prospects for realizing and practicing sustainable ‘hydrogen economy’ in China. Further technological advancement and reduction in total costs of HCNG utilization in powertrains will increase the number of HCNG vehicles decreasing the burden of air pollution, climate change, and energy crisis threats.

Estimation of energy efficiency and greenhouse gas emission of cotton crop in South Punjab, Pakistan

The agricultural sector is a consumer as well as a producer of energy. This study explores the relationship between energy consumption and greenhouse gas emission of cotton crop in Punjab province of Pakistan. Standard energy equivalents megajoules (MJ) were used to measure energy from different inputs and output, similarly, a standard unit kilogram of carbon dioxide equivalent (kg CO2) was used to estimate direct and indirect greenhouse gas emissions from the use of farm inputs. A non-parametric data envelopment analysis was used to estimate the energy efficiency of cotton growers. Farm efficiency analysis tool (FEAT) was used to estimate greenhouse gas emission and its intensity. The results showed that a total of 58, 374.07 MJ ha−1 input energy was used in cotton production, and output energy was calculated as 33,134 MJ ha−1. The results of DEA showed that 33% and 61% farmers were technically and pure technically efficient, respectively. The technical, pure technical and scale efficiency score of the cotton growers were 0.77, 0.90 and 0.85, respectively. Optimum energy requirement was found to be 34,882.65 MJ ha−1 demonstrating that if recommendations are followed 22.65% of input energy can be saved. The total greenhouse gas (GHG) emission was calculated to be 1928 kg CO2 ha−1. GHG intensity a ratio of kg CO2eq emission per MJ of output energy produced was estimated to be 0.07 kg CO2/MJ in cotton production. As part of recommendations, energy management in term of efficient, sustainable and economic use of energy in cotton is highly recommended.

Impact of Embodied Energy on materials/buildings with partial replacement of ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) by natural Pozzolanic Volcanic Ash

Abstract This work studies the effect on Embodied Energy (EE) of concrete when Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is partially substituted with natural Pozzolanic Volcanic Ash (VA) at the material and the building scale. The work aims to demonstrate potential improvements to the EE of buildings by comparing the EE of the cement mix with VA replacement to that of baseline case of traditional concrete. Embodied Energy Coefficients (EEC) express the EE of each building product in Mega Joules (MJ) per kg of material. Hardened cement paste made with up to 50% of the OPC replaced by volcanic ash with a mean particle size of either 17 μm or 6 μm is considered. Replacement of OPC with volcanic ash decreases the EEC, however the mix design must be engineered considering the volcanic ash composition to maintain the optimum mechanical strength. Grinding the volcanic ash from 17 μm to 6 μm led to increased compressive strength when replacing up to 40% of OPC with 6 μm sized volcanic ash. An average of 16% decrease in EEC values can be achieved when 40% OPC was replaced with VA. On a building scale, the initial EE is the energy consumed related to the extraction, production, and transportation of materials. For buildings with an average Structural Material Quantities (SMQ, expressed in mass of material per area) value of approximately 2000 kg/m2, a 16% decrease in EE value was observed among a sample set of 26 residential and commercial buildings when 50% of OPC is replaced with VA. The demonstrated reduction in EE values were calculated when natural supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) such as volcanic ash are used as a partial replacement to OPC, and it can be adapted to design and build energy-efficient systems tailored for structural and non-structural applications.

Attaining whole-ecosystem warming using air and deep-soil heating methods with an elevated CO&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;2&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt; atmosphere

Abstract. This paper describes the operational methods to achieve and measure both deep-soil heating (0–3 m) and whole-ecosystem warming (WEW) appropriate to the scale of tall-stature, high-carbon, boreal forest peatlands. The methods were developed to allow scientists to provide a plausible set of ecosystem-warming scenarios within which immediate and longer-term (1 decade) responses of organisms (microbes to trees) and ecosystem functions (carbon, water and nutrient cycles) could be measured. Elevated CO2 was also incorporated to test how temperature responses may be modified by atmospheric CO2 effects on carbon cycle processes. The WEW approach was successful in sustaining a wide range of aboveground and belowground temperature treatments (+0, +2.25, +4.5, +6.75 and +9 °C) in large 115 m2 open-topped enclosures with elevated CO2 treatments (+0 to +500 ppm). Air warming across the entire 10 enclosure study required ∼ 90 % of the total energy for WEW ranging from 64 283 mega Joules (MJ) d−1 during the warm season to 80 102 MJ d−1 during cold months. Soil warming across the study required only 1.3 to 1.9 % of the energy used ranging from 954 to 1782 MJ d−1 of energy in the warm and cold seasons, respectively. The residual energy was consumed by measurement and communication systems. Sustained temperature and elevated CO2 treatments were only constrained by occasional high external winds. This paper contrasts the in situ WEW method with closely related field-warming approaches using both aboveground (air or infrared heating) and belowground-warming methods. It also includes a full discussion of confounding factors that need to be considered carefully in the interpretation of experimental results. The WEW method combining aboveground and deep-soil heating approaches enables observations of future temperature conditions not available in the current observational record, and therefore provides a plausible glimpse of future environmental conditions.

Efectos de la intensificación ganadera sobre la eficiencia en el uso de la energía fósil y la conservación del pastizal en la cuenca baja del río Salado, provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina

Con el objetivo de explorar las consecuencias sobre la sustentabilidad ambiental del proceso de intensificación de la ganadería bovina de la cuenca del Salado, se comparó la proporción y condición del pastizal natural, la cantidad de energía fósil consumida por unidad de superficie y de producto y la eficiencia en el uso de energía fósil de13 establecimientos con distinta intensidad en el uso de insumos para la alimentación del ganado. La energía fósil consumida por unidad de superficie mostró un rango entre 600 y 3600 MJ hectárea-1 año-1, la consumida por unidad de producto se ubicó entre 0,01 y 8,49 MJ kg-1 de peso vivo de carne bovina y la eficiencia en el uso de energía resultó entre 0,92 y 1973 MJ producidos por MJ consumidos. El consumo de energía fue inferior y la eficiencia en su uso fue superior en los establecimientos que conservan una elevada proporción de pastizal en buena condición, como consecuencia del adecuado manejo del pastoreo respecto de la de aquellos que usaron mayor cantidad de insumos para la alimentación. El actual proceso de intensificación está disminuyendo la eficiencia energética de los sistemas de producción de carne, lo que sugiere una alerta para la sustentabilidad ambiental.

Life Cycle–based Assessment of Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Almond Production, Part I: Analytical Framework and Baseline Results

SummaryThis first article of a two‐article series describes a framework and life cycle–based model for typical almond orchard production systems for California, where more than 80% of commercial almonds on the world market are produced. The comprehensive, multiyear, life cycle–based model includes orchard establishment and removal; field operations and inputs; emissions from orchard soils; and transport and utilization of co‐products. These processes are analyzed to yield a life cycle inventory of energy use, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, criteria air pollutants, and direct water use from field to factory gate. Results show that 1 kilogram (kg) of raw almonds and associated co‐products of hulls, shells, and woody biomass require 35 megajoules (MJ) of energy and result in 1.6 kg carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2‐eq) of GHG emissions. Nitrogen fertilizer and irrigation water are the dominant causes of both energy use and GHG emissions. Co‐product credits play an important role in estimating the life cycle environmental impacts attributable to almonds alone; using displacement methods results in net energy and emissions of 29 MJ and 0.9 kg CO2‐eq/kg. The largest sources of credits are from orchard biomass and shells used in electricity generation, which are modeled as displacing average California electricity. Using economic allocation methods produces significantly different results; 1 kg of almonds is responsible for 33 MJ of energy and 1.5 kg CO2‐eq emissions. Uncertainty analysis of important parameters and assumptions, as well as temporary carbon storage in orchard trees and soils, are explored in the second article of this two‐part article series.

Life Cycle–based Assessment of Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Almond Production, Part II: Uncertainty Analysis through Sensitivity Analysis and Scenario Testing

SummaryThis is the second part of a two‐article series examining California almond production. The part I article describes development of the analytical framework and life cycle–based model and presents typical energy use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for California almonds. This part II article builds on this by exploring uncertainty in the life cycle model through sensitivity and scenario analysis, and by examining temporary carbon storage in the orchard.Sensitivity analysis shows life cycle GHG emissions are most affected by biomass fate and utilization, followed by nitrous oxide emissions rates from orchard soils. Model sensitivity for net energy consumption is highest for irrigation system parameters, followed by biomass fate and utilization.Scenario analysis shows utilization of orchard biomass for electricity production has the greatest potential effect, assuming displacement methods are used for co‐product allocation. Results of the scenario analysis show that 1 kilogram (kg) of almond kernel and associated co‐products are estimated to cause between −3.12 to 2.67 kg carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2‐eq) emissions and consume between 27.6 to 52.5 megajoules (MJ) of energy. Co‐product displacement credits lead to avoided emissions of between −1.33 to 2.45 kg CO2‐eq and between −0.08 to 13.7 MJ of avoided energy use, leading to net results of −1.39 to 3.99 kg CO2‐eq and 15.3 to 52.6 MJ per kg kernel (net results are calculated by subtracting co‐product credits from the results for almonds and co‐products).Temporary carbon storage in orchard biomass and soils is accounted for by using alternative global warming characterization factors and leads to a 14% to 18% reduction in CO2‐eq emissions. Future studies of orchards and other perennial cropping systems should likely consider temporary carbon storage.

Energy intake and expenditure assessed ‘in-season’ in an elite European rugby union squad

Rugby union (RU) is a complex high-intensity intermittent collision sport with emphasis placed on players possessing high lean body mass and low body fat. After an 8 to 12-week pre-season focused on physiological adaptations, emphasis shifts towards competitive performance. However, there are no objective data on the physiological demands or energy intake (EI) and energy expenditure (EE) for elite players during this period. Accordingly, in-season training load using global positioning system and session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE), alongside six-day assessments of EE and EI were measured in 44 elite RU players. Mean weekly distance covered was 7827 ± 954 m and 9572 ± 1233 m with a total mean weekly sRPE of 1776 ± 355 and 1523 ± 434 AU for forwards and backs, respectively. Mean weekly EI was 16.6 ± 1.5 and 14.2 ± 1.2 megajoules (MJ) and EE was 15.9 ± 0.5 and 14 ± 0.5 MJ. Mean carbohydrate (CHO) intake was 3.5 ± 0.8 and 3.4 ± 0.7 g.kg−1 body mass, protein intake was 2.7 ± 0.3 and 2.7 ± 0.5 g.kg−1 body mass, and fat intake was 1.4 ± 0.2 and 1.4 ± 0.3 g.kg−1 body mass. All players who completed the food diary self-selected a ‘low’ CHO ‘high’ protein diet during the early part of the week, with CHO intake increasing in the days leading up to a match, resulting in the mean EI matching EE. Based on EE and training load data, the EI and composition seems appropriate, although further research is required to evaluate if this diet is optimal for match day performance

English

Although, the cost of food is commonly described as a barrier to consuming a healthy diet, the evidence for this viewpoint has been inconsistent to date. The purpose of this study was to assess whether a healthy diet is affordable for a sample population with major depressive disorder and current unhealthy eating patterns, enrolled in supporting the modification of lifestyle in lowered emotional states (SMILES) trial. The first 20 participants of the SMILES trial were invited to complete a 7-day food diary at baseline. A cost analysis of a modified Mediterranean diet (recommended for trial participants) and 7-day food diaries of participants enrolled in the randomized controlled trial was conducted. Trial participants spent an estimated mean of $138 per week on food and beverages for personal consumption, whereas the total food and beverage costs per person per week for the recommended modified Mediterranean diet was estimated at $112, both based on mid-range product cost. The modified Mediterranean diet at $1.54 per mega-joules (MJ) was cheaper per energy unit than the cost of the current dietary intake of the SMILES participants included in this study at a mean of $2.35 per MJ. These study findings suggest that the adoption of a healthy modified Mediterranean diet does not cost more than a poor quality diet. Thus, failure to comply with healthy diets is unlikely to reflect affordability. Public health messages should incorporate the finding that healthy eating is not associated with increased costs and in fact may well involve savings to the household budget. Practical strategies and techniques for selecting healthy nutritious foods on a budget could support the achievement of desired dietary goals for preventing and managing chronic disease. Key words: Depression, cost analysis, food cost, healthy diet, Mediterranean diet.

Sustaining the Farming Household to Sustain the Farming

In the literature on sustainability of agriculture, both labourers and workers are conspicuously absent. Here, the sustainability of agriculture has been defined in terms of whether the farm household in question is able to yield an energy surplus when its members and the animals in its possession are obtaining an adequate ‘energy income’ or Calorie intake. To evaluate the sustainability of 590 farming households in the state of West Bengal, India, during 2004–5, four progressively stricter definitions of sustainability have been proposed, defined and applied. The method of energy balance analysis was followed. A negative surplus was found to be near‐universal across size‐groups in terms of the net area sown (NAS), the gross cultivated area (GCA) and agro‐climatic zones. The threshold output for a non‐negative surplus during the cultivating period was 700,000 megajoules (MJ); in terms of the GCA for a positive ‘full and final’ annual surplus, it was 3 hectares, and in NAS terms it was 2.5 hectares; against NAS per household size, it was 0.6 hectares, for ensuring a positive surplus beyond the annual sustainability. No evidence could be found in favour of household size as an explanation for the negative surplus.