Medium Income Households Research Articles

Molecular Characterization of Hetero-Pathogenic and Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli Pathotypes in Diarrheic Children under Five Years and Exposure Environment in Ogun State, South-West Nigeria.

Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli (DEC) is one of the most common etiological agents of moderate-to-severe diarrhea in Low- and Middle-Income Countries (LMICs). Therefore, determining the source(s) of DEC in index cases and exposure environment is important for developing a prevention strategy. The current study aims to investigate the prevalence of DEC among children under 5 years and their exposure environment in Ogun State, Nigeria. Samples from 228 diarrheic children and their exposure environment were collected and screened for E. coli. Bio-chemically compatible distinct colonies were molecularly characterized using a 7-virulence-gene multiplex PCR with virulence factors (VFs) indicative of four pathotypes of E. coli: enterotoxigenic (ETEC), verotoxigenic (VTEC), enteropathogenic (EPEC), and enteroinvasive (EIEC). Representative pathotypes were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility and over-expressed efflux pump assays. One or more VFs typical of specific pathotypes were detected in 25.9% (59/228) diarrhea cases consisting of ETEC (21.5%) and EPEC (0.4%), while hetero-pathogenic pathotypes were found in 4.0% of cases. Of the food sources, 27.9% (101/362) were positive for DEC, of which ETEC accounted for 21.0%, VTEC 1.9%, EPEC 0.6%, EIEC 0.6%, and hetero-pathogenic pathotypes were 3.9%. Furthermore, ETEC was the only pathotype detected in the wastewater (4/183). Interestingly, the consumption of street-vended foods was the most significant (p = 0.04) risk factor for DEC infection in the study area. A total of 73.3% of selected DEC pathotypes showed resistance to antimicrobials, while 27.5% demonstrated over-expression of efflux pump activity. The high prevalence of ETEC across all sources and the occurrence of hetero-pathogenic DEC in diarrheic children and food sources emphasizes the importance of establishing a better strategy for the control and prevention of diarrhea among children in low- and medium-income households.

Income inequality and entrepreneurship: Lessons from the 2020 COVID-19 recession

We study entry into entrepreneurship during the COVID-19 recession of 2020 using new data from an extensive survey of more than 24,000 Spanish households, conducted between June and November 2020. We find that while the overall decline in the startup rate in 2020 was large, and of a similar magnitude as that during the Great Recession, the differential impact depending on ex ante income was starkly different. During 2020, the drop in firm entry was entirely concentrated among low- and medium-income households. We show that the entrepreneurship gap between these households and their high-income counterparts is not directly explained by social distancing, since it is mostly driven by the sectors not directly affected by lockdown measures, and it is larger among households that did not suffer a negative income shock during the pandemic. Our results instead indicate that high-income households performed relatively better during the COVID-19 recession because they had the means to exploit new business opportunities, thanks to their larger wealth and better access to external finance.

A comparative analysis of renewable and non-renewable energy generation to relegate CO2 emissions and general costs in household systems.

Ensuring adequate implementation of solar energy for providing environment-friendly energy to the household sector, which can considerably abate pollutants in the environment and make power industry structure sustainable, is necessary for developing countries. Comparison in terms of environmental and cost impacts of renewable energy (hybrid solar system) with non-renewable energy sources, water and planning development authority (WAPDA), and diesel generators (DGs) has been examined in the household sector of Pakistan. Primary data of hybrid solar systems have been obtained from 10 different households segregated them into two categories according to their income as medium-income households (MIHs) and lower income households (LIHs) containing 5 kW and 3 kW of hybrid solar energy systems, respectively. While operating with a hybrid solar energy system instead of a non-renewable energy system, in terms of average generated power and average running load, carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions can be reduced up to 8,446.6 kg CO2 and 6,131.725 kg CO2, respectively, in the next 25 years. Comparison of costs indicated that renewable energy has a comparatively low cost per electric unit. It can pay back its total installation cost in just 8 years and can save a sum of $4,936.4375, along with many more ecological, economic, and societal benefits. Pakistan can efficiently utilize solar energy to relegate CO2 emissions and general costs as it has distinct geographical features to access sunlight in most days of the year.

The potential of energy recovery from municipal solid waste in Kampala City, Uganda by incineration

• Techno-economic study of energy recovery from MSW in Kampala by incineration was done. • Characterization of the MSW was conducted. • A MSW incineration plant was designed and simulated. • The plant can produce 774 kWh of electricity per ton of MSW. • The NPV was USD 34 million, project IRR of 12.9 %, and a payback period of 6 years. With the increasing urbanization, global generation of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is expected to increase to 3.4 billion tons by 2050. Annually, 1.9 billion tons of MSW is generated with each person contributing 218 kg of MSW to this projected grand total. In Kampala, the annual MSW collection exceeds 350,000 tons which is disposed at the city’s landfill which has exceeded its capacity. This has side effects including environmental contamination, methane gas generation promoting global warming, and labour issues. No research has been conducted towards assessing the potential of energy recovery from the city’s MSW by incineration. In this paper, the techno-economic assessment of energy recovery from MSW in Kampala city using incineration was done. Waste data was collected through sampling upon delivery at the landfill. Chemical composition of the waste was determined by proximate analysis and calculation of the elemental composition followed by determination of the calorific value. A MSW incineration plant was designed based on a mass burn incineration. The design parameters were determined using thermodynamic equations and Peng Robison’s equations of state. Simulation was done using Aspen Plus and Aspen Hysys, for a plant combusting 220,000 tons per annum of MSW at a feed rate of 27 tons of MSW per hour. The economic analysis was done assuming that the project was a Public Private Partnership debt financed by 75 % with an interest rate of LIBOR plus 5 % margin over a term of 15 years. Results showed that the composition of the waste was largely organic with an 80% composition. The Lower Heating Value was 6.12 MJ/kg with a moisture content of 25%. The elemental composition was 43.47% Carbon, 5.52% Hydrogen, and 41% Oxygen with absence of Nitrogen and Sulfur. The ash content was reported at 6.65 %. From the simulations, the plant is capable of exporting 774 kWh of electricity per ton of MSW to the national grid, capable of powering 1,062 medium income households in Uganda. A capital investment of USD157 million with the sale of electricity and a gate fee as the sources of revenue for a project running for 25 years was considered. The resulting Net Present Value was USD 30 million with a project Internal Rate of Return of 12.6 % and a payback period of 6 years. Thus, the present study demonstrates the possibilities to increase the adoption and use of renewable and clean energy, prioritise energy efficiency, and biodiversity for a green and sustainable Kampala city. Moreover, the results provide immediate technical information for policy makers and potential investors in the development of waste to energy projects in Uganda.

Mental health spillovers from serious family illness: Doubly robust estimation using EQ-5D-5L population normative data

People are interconnected and ill-health is rarely experienced in isolation. However, while there has been extensive research on health spillovers related to informal caregiving, there is comparatively little evidence on how ill-health may impact upon non-caregiving family members. This paper analyses EQ-5D-5L normative data from a nationally representative sample of adult residents of Ireland to estimate the independent relationship between serious family illness and five distinct dimensions of health. The empirical strategy combines inverse probability weighting and multivariate ordered probit regression in a doubly robust estimation. We find that experience of serious family illness is associated with large mental health decrements that are independent of caring responsibilities, while similar results are not evident for the four other health dimensions. Furthermore, stratified sub-sample analyses indicate considerable heterogeneity by sex and by income. In particular, we find evidence consistent with larger mental health spillovers for females than for males, as well as for low- and medium-income households relative to high-income households. The latter suggests that such spillovers may be substantially worse for those with fewer resources. Overall, the findings have a range of potential implications, including for the provision of mental health supports and services, for equity of health outcomes, as well as for health economic evaluation. For example, we calculate that our estimates of health spillovers are consistent with a 1.3% reduction in health utility for non-caregiving family members.

Factors affecting electricity consumption of residential consumers in Cambodia

The main purpose of this paper attempted to examine major factors that affect the electricity consumption of residential consumer type in Cambodia by observing through two approaches, socio-economic and direct-use perspectives. The end-use model and stepwise linear regression analysis were applied. The residential consumers were categorized into three levels of household income, such as; high, medium and low. The results of the actual data from survey questionnaire illustrated that determinant factors of electricity usage depended on the income level. High income households consumed 52% in residential sector, more than medium and low income households which had 34% and 14%, respectively. The regression analysis expressed, from socio-economic factors, the electricity consumption of residents had significantly been influenced by total monthly income, level of education and number of people per household. In direct-use perspective, comfort appliances consumed the most energy for 40.53% of total monthly consumption. It followed by cooking appliances with 33.53%, and recreation used 10.9% in the household. Lighting system required 7.85%; hence, the least consumed energy materials were cleaning-use, only 7.19% of total monthly usage. The residential consumers could wisely consume their monthly electricity consumption by saving on the affected factors.

Optimal Investment Strategy for Solar PV Integration in Residential Buildings: A Case Study in The Philippines

In developing countries, particularly in rural areas, long periods of power outages are experienced as the electricity grid is technically or economically unfeasible. As solar photovoltaic (PV) is the most potential and suitable source of renewable energy for these areas, this paper analyzes the economic viability of its integration in different types of residential buildings. Applying real optionsapproach under uncertainty in electricity prices, this study compares the attractiveness of adopting solar PV over continuing electricity from the grid focusing on various investment payment schemes including (i) full payment, (ii) distributed payment for 5 or 10 years without a down payment, and (iii) distributed payment for 5 or 10 years with 20% or 40% down payment. Applying the model with the case of the Philippines, the resultswith the full payment strategy obtain option values of USD 6888 for building type-I, USD 15349 for building type-II, USD 21204 for building type-III, USD 27870 for building type-IV, and USD 34251 for building type-V. These option values increase by 21.6% and 22.5% with distributed payment scheme to a 5- or 10-year period and increase by 5% and 13% for distributed payment with 40% and 20% down payment. These option values decrease with investments at later periods. Contrary to the conventional option valuation results of an optimal decision to wait, our findings show the otherwise as earlier investment reduces the risk of opportunity loss from delaying the adoption of solar PV. Among the payment schemes analyzed, the distribution of PV system cost in a 10-year installment periodwithout down payment shows to be the most optimal investment strategy which may encourage lower-income and risk-averse consumers whose decision to adopt solar PV is affected by cost barriers, economic status, and household income. The study suggests the government, particularly in developing countries, to support the integration of own-use solar PV in buildings through incentives and subsidies, as well as financial institutions to offer more affordable terms of payment that encourages low to medium income households to adopt solar PV.Further, this will not only augment the energy deficiency in these countries but also support the global aspirations of reducing greenhouse gas emissions and its adverse effects through gradually shifting to renewable sources of energy.

Markups for Consumers

A central motivating factor for studying price markups is their effect on consumer welfare. Reported estimates of (firm-level) price markups in the literature, however, are often focused on industry or cross-country comparisons. These treat different industries equally rather than based on how relevant they are for consumers. We propose markup measures in which firm-level price markups are weighted according to consumption expenditures in the respective industries. Using a concordance table between consumption categories (otherwise used for the calculation of consumer price indices) and a firm’s industry classification, we report results for Germany for the years 2002 through 2016. We find that consumption-weighted price markups are higher than the conventionally reported revenue-weighted mark-ups. We further show that consumption-weighted markups have increased faster in particular for medium-income households, which highlights a potential role of price markup as a contributing factor to changes of inequality in society.

A data-driven complex network approach for planning sustainable and inclusive urban mobility hubs and services

New mobility services that facilitate multimodal options are important for strategic urban transport systems planning. Part of this strategy is municipal investment in urban mobility hubs to increase access to mobility services. We present a new evaluation framework and algorthim to locate and assess the sustainability and equity impacts of hubs in cities. Scenarios are used to evaluate hub investment strategies in different cities that prioritize (1) current mode split, (2) high transit capacity, and (3) multimodal services. From an equity perspective, high transit capacity and multimodal hub strategies include more low-income areas than current mode split, which covers middle-income areas most. Travel times to access the nearest hub in Portland by low-income households is ∼20–40 min compared to high-income households requiring ∼25–30 min. Seattle and Vancouver perform better requiring ∼15–20 min for low-income compared to ∼25–35 min for high-income households. Multimodal hubs are the most efficient requiring ∼15–20 minutes to reach compared to ∼15–30 minutes for high capacity and current mode split scenarios. From a sustainability perspective, ∼10%–50% of the population cannot reach a hub within 30 minutes by public transit compared to <10% by car, and travel time to reach the nearest hub in all three cities by car is <20 min compared to ∼20–40 min by public transit. Between all cities, low-income households representing ∼2%–15% of the total population have no access to a hub by public transit within 30 min compared to high-income households representing ∼1%–3% of the total population. Only in Portland are there low-income households not able to reach a hub by car, and in each city, all high-income households can reach at least one hub by car within 30 min. Our results show how municipalities can strategically invest in public transit and multimodal options to increase the frequency, quality, and overall mobility for low- and medium-income households and improve access to essential amenities for more vulnerable citizens. Municipalities can use our hub evaluation framework to explore alternative transport investment scenarios and spatially locate urban hubs to meet future travel demand, increase adoption of multimodal services, and improve equitable access for all citizens.

Housing affordability sets us apart: The effect of rising housing prices on relocation behaviour

Life course events such as new offspring or job loss affect a household’s demand for housing. At the same time, dynamics in the real estate market constrain where households find affordable housing. In a quasi-experimental design, this study examines the effect of increasing local housing prices on the relocation behaviour of low- and medium-income households. Difference-in-difference panel regressions using propensity score matching show that with rising local rental prices, low-income households are more likely to remain in their current housing and sustain higher levels of housing cost burden. If they move, they relocate further out of the city centre and to neighbourhoods with high unemployment rates. Rising housing markets facilitate socio-spatial segregation as middle-income households remain in economically better-off neighbourhoods. The findings highlight the additional costs of increasing housing prices in terms of the misallocation of housing and the spatial concentration of vulnerable households at the outskirts of cities.

Credit Upgrades and Inclusive Growth: Examining the Links

This paper examines some of the channels through which some of the anticipated benefits from the 2013-2015 Philippine credit upgrades are expected to flow to poor and low income households. It identifies financial inclusion as an important ingredient in further boosting economic growth and improving its inclusiveness, notably as far as its poverty reduction impact is concerned. Nevertheless, this paper finds evidence that the credit market is still highly segmented, and non-inclusive for the vast majority of small and medium scale enterprises (SMEs) and low income households in the Philippines. It is also likely that Philippine public sector investments are not yet as strong as could be programmed — leading to possible underinvestment in public goods. And because some key public goods can also disproportionally benefit the poor and low income population, then this also signals a severe disconnect between the credit upgrades and the vast majority of the population that hopes to benefit from them.

Understanding technology ownership to reveal adoption trends for energy efficiency measures in the Greek residential sector

This article explores technology ownership patterns to reveal adoption trends for energy efficiency measures (EEMs) in the Greek residential sector. To do so, we couple observational survey data with discrete choice modeling. Household preferences are revealed through EEMs owned by Greek householders, after having been questioned for a variety of end-use measures and details about their specification. Our results confirm prior evidence on traditional determinants οf technology adoption and extend those by validating that households familiar with information and communication technologies (ICTs) are more likely to own EEMs with smart features. We were also able to highlight the positive influence of participation in subsidy, as well as other support programmes for vulnerable consumers in households’ ownership of EEMs. Our results are then used to simulate the change in technology ownership rates, under no and full participation in a subsidy programme, for three income levels. Simulation outcomes suggest that, for almost all EEMs, the probability for technology ownership is greater for higher-income households benefitting from a subsidy. Nevertheless, the change in the probability of technology ownership due to the subsidy is larger for low- and medium-income households participating in the programme, further encouraging, thus, support for financial policies targeting lower-income households.

Housing Affordability and the Organized Private Sector Housing in Nigeria

Growing housing deficit in Nigeria, particularly in urban areas, has resulted to various housing problems such as overcrowding, homelessness, slum and squatter developments. Despite the myriad of housing policies and programmes to solve the housing deficit, the desire goals have not been achieved, hence the adoption of organized Private Sector housing delivery in 2002. This research is an assessment of the Affordability of Organized Private Sector Housing Delivery in Nigeria. We adopted cross-sectional survey and multi-stage sampling technique. Two states with the prevalence of organized private sector housing developers (OPSHD) in each of the six (6) geo-political zones of Nigeria were selected. Ten Percent (1950) households were randomly selected from the occupied houses (19,500) in all the estates. The structured questionnaires administered on 1950 household heads focused on demographic characteristics (age, sex, and household size) and housing affordability variables (income, housing expenditure and access to mortgage). Questionnaire administered on OPSHD focused on types of houses produced, selling prices and terms. Affordability rating scale (normal ≤ 30%; tolerable 30.1% - 50% and stressed > 50%) was used to measure housing affordability. The study revealed that 42.4%; 36.9% and 20.6% of households have normal, tolerable and stressed housing affordability respectively. The implication of these findings is that organized private sector housing is not affordable to most Nigerians, particularly the low and medium income households; and therefore need to be assisted. A more efficient mortgage with better penetration among the low and medium income household is desirable. Also, “rent-and-own” option should be considered to enhance affordability of low and medium income households.

Trends in the prevalence of ARIs and ADDs in early childhood and associated factors: Ensanut 2012 and 100k.

To compare the prevalence of acute respiratory infections (ARI) and acute diarrheal disease (ADD) among children younger than five years of age living in localities with less than 100 000 inhabitants in Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición (Ensanut) 2012 and Ensanut 100k (2018). In Ensanut 100k, we evaluate the associated factors. Analysis of both surveys and of the Mexican Meteorological System. The estimated prevalence of ARI was 45.1% in 2012 vs. 32.9% in 2018. The decrease was significant among medium and high-income households. There were no changes in trends for ADD. Among households with lower EC, ARI was associated with roofing material, temperature, and rainy precipitation while ADD was associated with lack of piped water. The estimated prevalence of ARI has decreased in medium and high income households. Some households and weather conditions are associated with ARI and ADD.

Characterizing mode choice behaviors of the evacuees during emergency evacuation using a Logistic regression model

The most crucial transportation components in studying individual decision-making behavior are mode choice that used by evacuees. Especially in typical emerging countries which private motorized transport is mostly used in daily activities. Mode choice evacuation behavior is viewed as one of the essential aspects in a transportation disaster planning. This study is aiming to investigate an individual’s preferences for selecting motorized and non-motorized modes for their evacuation during imaginary tsunami evacuation. The Stated Preference (SP) experimental data were collected in Kuta Raja sub-district, one of the most exposed sub-district in Banda Aceh. Binary logistic regression was conducted to evaluate the effects of several factors quantitatively and to identify the dominant factor that affected evacuation mode choice. The empirical result depicts that mode choice used by evacuee during an emergency evacuation is suggestively associated to the socio-demographic attributes such as male gender, age, government employee, low-income household, household member and motorcycle owned. It found that the medium-income households substantially rely on motorcycle mode for their evacuation. The more motorcycle owned within the household, the more likelihood of using motorcycle for their evacuation. The male gender and government employee also has a statistically positive correlation to the explanatory power of motorized transport used to evacuate.

Income, Race and its Association with Obesogenic Behaviors of U.S. Children and Adolescents, NHANES 2003-2006.

To describe the associations of income and race with obesogenic behaviors and % body fat among a large sample of U.S. children and adolescents. Data were obtained from the 2003-2004 and 2005-2006 National Health and Nutritional Examination Survey. Multiple linear regression models and interactions were used to examine the associations of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), sedentary time, diet quality, and screen-time with income-to-poverty ratio and race. Separate stratified analyses explored associations among individual obesogenic behaviors within race and income groups. This study included children and adolescents (n = 3551, mean = 13.1years, SD = 3.9years) who were 37% Hispanic, 27% White, and 35% Black. Overall, Hispanic children/adolescents had significantly higher levels of adiposity (3.6, 95 CI = 0.9, 6.3) than white children and adolescents. Medium-income children and adolescents engaged in less MVPA (- 3.3min, 95 CI = - 5.1, - 1.5), had poorer diet quality (- 1.1, 95 CI = - 1.9, - 0.2), and used screens less (- 33.9min, 95 CI = - 45.4, - 22.4) than children and adolescents from low-income households. High-income children and adolescents also engaged in less MVPA (- 3.1min, 95 CI = - 5.5, - 0.7) and used screens less (- 62.9min, 95 CI = - 78.3, - 47.4) than children and adolescents from low-income households. However, there were significant race/ethnicity-by-income interactions for high-income Hispanic children and adolescents with diet quality (- 3.5 HEI-2010 score, 95 CI = - 6.6, - 0.4) and screen time (66.9min, 95 CI = 24.7, 109.0). There was also a significant race/ethnicity-by-income interaction for the screen-time of Black children and adolescents from medium (33.8min, 95% CI 0.2, 67.3) and high (75.8min, 95% CI 34.7, 117.0) income households. There appears to be a complex relationship that varies by race/ethnicity between income, obesogenic behaviors, and adiposity levels among children and adolescents. More work is needed to identify the behavioral mechanisms that are driving disparate rates of overweight and obesity among minority children and those from low-income households.

The Effect of the Surrounding Landscape and Socioeconomic characteristics on Woody Species Diversity in Homegardens of Shewarobit District, Northeast Ethiopia

Although homegardens are most often suggested as the refuges for biodiversity in human-dominated landscapes, how the surrounding landscape and socioeconomic characteristics affect this diversity in the tropics has received little research attention. Hence, this study has examined how these factors affect woody species diversity in homegardens of northeast Ethiopia. Three landscapes which are similar in agroecology were selected and in total 54 households were used for both a survey and a woody species inventory in respondents’ homegardens. The homegardens were stratified based on their locations in relation to crop fields and natural vegetation using satellite images from Google Earth. The variation in Shannon–Wiener diversity index among homegardens and the effect of the socioeconomic factors including household wealth status, homegarden area and the households’ types of uses of woody plants on species diversity were analyzed using one-way ANOVA. Altogether 53 woody plant species belonging to 35 botanical families were identified. Survey results indicated that the woody species diversity was higher in homegardens situated close to crop land as compared with the diversity in homegardens close to natural vegetation. Higher woody species diversity was recorded in homegardens which are larger in area and where the households’ types of uses of woody plants is higher. Moreover, the woody species diversity was found to be higher in homegardens of the high and medium income households when compared with that of poor households. Overall, results suggest that the concurrent ecological and socioeconomic studies are needed to design conservation strategy and policy for plant biodiversity in agricultural landscapes.

The effect of residential housing policy on car ownership and trip chaining behaviour in Hangzhou, China

China has recently initialised affordable housing policies to provide low rent housings for medium and low income households aiming to satisfy the growing demand in the housing market. The travel behaviour of residents in these two different types of housing is likely to differ, since public housing tenants have a limited choice of residential location, as the location of low-rent housing is fixed, while residents in commodity housing are able to take their travel patterns into account in choosing their housing location. Therefore, this paper investigates the differences in car ownership and trip chaining behaviour arising from living in different types of residential housing. The self-selection bias caused by the differences in the observed individual and household characteristics is partially controlled by a propensity score matching approach. The study further considers the endogenous effect of car ownership on travel chaining behaviour, thus controlling for the self-selection bias at car ownership level. The results show that residents in private commodity housing are more likely to own a car than those in low-rent housing with similar individual and household characteristics. Different life cycle stages play a vital role in car ownership after self-selection in residential housing has been taken into account. Living in private commodity housing has a direct negative effect on trip chaining complexity, after controlling for endogenous car ownership, although this effect is offset by the tendency for private commodity housing owners to do complex trip chaining because they have one or more cars.

Executive function assessment in New Zealand 2-year olds born at risk of neonatal hypoglycemia.

A growing number of babies are born with perinatal risk factors that may impair later development. These children are often assessed at 2 years to help predict outcome and direct support services. Executive function is an important predictor of academic achievement and behavior, but there are limited assessments of executive function in 2-year-olds and few have been tested in at-risk populations. Therefore, we developed a battery of four age-appropriate tasks to assess executive function in 2-year-olds. At 24 months’ corrected age 368 children completed tasks assessing attention, inhibition, working memory and cognitive flexibility. Scores on different tasks were weakly correlated, suggesting that they measured separate aspects of executive function, with combined scores for this cohort approximating a normal distribution. Significantly more boys (67%) than girls (57%) were unable to inhibit their behavior on the Snack Delay Task and girls (M = 3.24, SD = 2.4) had higher mean scores than boys (M = 2.7, SD = 2.7) on the Ducks and Buckets Reverse Categorization Task of working memory. Performance was significantly affected by family socioeconomic status. Mean scores were lower on all four individual tasks and on the global score of overall performance in children from a low household income (<$40,000) compared to those from medium ($40,001-$70,000) and high income households (>$70,001). Maternal education was only associated with scores on the working memory task and the global score; and a measure of neighborhood deprivation was only associated with scores on the two inhibitory tasks and the global score. Our findings confirm the feasibility of assessing executive function in 2-year-olds, and its ability to discriminate effects of socioeconomic status, a common confounder in child development research. Further development and standardization of this test battery comparing at-risk children with a normative population would provide a much-needed measure of executive function in early childhood.

Caring for our infants: parents’ antenatal childcare intentions and nine-month reality

Infants are increasingly cared for by adults other than their parents. Here we describe non-parental infant care within a diverse cohort; and investigate the relationship between parents’ antenatal intentions and actual infant care. 6822 New Zealand women were recruited during pregnancy and asked about their intentions for childcare. Non-parental care was assessed when infants were nine months old: 1717 (25%) of the 6853 cohort children were receiving more than 8 h per week of regular non-parental care. In comparison with infants of European mothers, infants of Asian or Pacific mothers were more likely to be cared for by extended family; and infants of Māori mothers were more likely to receive centre-based care. Infants from families with lower household incomes, living in more deprived areas were more likely to be cared for by family. When their infants were nine months old, mothers from low- to medium-income households were less likely to be using the type of non-parental care they had intended antenatally, and the same was true when their children were aged 2 years.