Medieval Roof Research Articles

Availability and Consumption of Wooden Resource for the Construction of Late Medieval Roof Structures in Finland

Availability and Consumption of Wooden Resource for the Construction of Late Medieval Roof Structures in Finland

Notre-Dame de Paris as a validation case to improve fire safety modelling in historic buildings

The analysis of the thermal damages in Notre-Dame de Paris is necessary to estimate the impact of the dramatic 2019 fire on the remaining structure prior to reconstruction. In doing so, the large amount of data being generated creates a benchmark environment to test the relevance of numerical fire models in the unconventional configuration of a medieval roof. While being an uncontrolled and complex configuration, it can provide insights regarding the relevance of numerical tools for fire risk assessment in historic buildings. Analysing the thermal degradation of the Lutetian limestone in a vault of the choir, experimental techniques are developed to track the in-depth maximum temperature profile reached during the fire. Numerical simulations of the fire development in the roof space then aim at replicating the observations through the evaluation of the heat flux impinging the vaults during the fire. These simulations are carried out using Fire Dynamic Simulator, which requires a large range of assumptions prior to any simulation regarding materials, geometry, meshing and scale. These assumptions are described and pave the way to a future sensitivity analysis to confront the upcoming outcomes of the simulations with the experimental observations.

Revealing the Innovations in Late Medieval Roof Structures of Finland

Abstract In Scandinavia and Finland, nearly all constructions, including monumental and sacral architecture, used only timber until the 11th century. In Finland, timber remained the dominant construction material until the 19th century. Due to many fires, wars, and other catastrophic events, the number of still-standing wooden buildings and constructions erected before industrialization is very limited. Medieval wooden buildings can only be found in archaeological excavations, and the last remaining medieval load-bearing wooden structures are preserved in the medieval stone churches. While medieval roof constructions have been widely researched elsewhere in Europe, a comprehensive understanding of medieval roof constructions in Finland is largely lacking. This article presents an ongoing study of roof structures in Finnish medieval stone churches, focusing on two churches, Pernaja and Hammarland, which provide evidence of the transition from tie beam roof trusses to roof trusses without a tie beam. We examine the typology of the trusses, and present new results based on a comparison of the churches and dendrochronological analyses. Finally, we discuss possible explanations for the structural innovations and the emergence of the roof truss without a tie beam in a wider cultural context.

Evolution of Roof Systems in Ancient Coptic Churches: form 4th to 9th Centuries

Few roof structures remain unscathed from the 4th to 9th centuries in the history of Egyptian architecture generally. The relatively large amount of well-preserved early roof structures in churches in Egypt is used as a point of departure to structurally define medieval Egyptian roof structures. Investigations of actual roof structures along with study of written sources provide the basis for the study, beside site visits if the structure still exists. The structures are defined according to inherited known systems, economics, politics, building materials and semiotics. We can grope an occurring evolution in the design of the churches’ roofs. The medieval roof structures of Coptic churches can generally and concisely be described by tracing them and putting them in a chronological order. This study completes the constructed mental image about that period, and provide architects with simple architectural solutions within communities that enjoy the exitance of multicultures.

Medieval Roofs of the Csík Seat (Harghita County, Romania)

The paper “Medieval roofs of the Csík Seat” presents the results of a dendrochronological research focused on the medieval churches of the Ciuc Basin (East Carpathians, Harghita County). More of these churches preserved the medieval chancels although the exact building dates were unknown and only indirect data, such as altar and bell inscriptions, give a more precise dating. Earlier dendrochronological sampling remained unsuccessful because of the timber species used: Norway spruce for which we had no valid local chronology. After a campaign dedicated to a new chronology, sampling was repeated and more roof structures were successfully dated.

The Knowledge of Carpenters from the Early Medieval Period to the Eighteenth Century in Setting Out Roofs and Buildings Without Geometry and Numerical Measurement

The question of how medieval carpenters set out their work is an under-investigated topic of research. Advanced craft knowledge is needed for a study of this kind and, in that regard, this article is written from a master craftsman’s point of view. Domestic medieval roofs have consistently common roof pitches of 48°, 52°, 55° 1 and 58°, and roofs were being pitched long before the early scholars brought knowledge from the ancient world to England in the mid-twelfth century. Moreover, it is unlikely that master carpenters and masons had access to this knowledge until the early to mid-thirteenth century, and equally unlikely that the domestic carpenter had any knowledge of geometry until the seventeenth or eighteenth century. Instead, this article argues that medieval carpenters used a simple method of setting out using cord, which would obviate the need for measurement and geometry and whose common divisions correspond to the common pitches found in medieval buildings. This article is on a subject of ongoing debate in which there are a range of views, and it is anticipated that a response will be published in due course.

The Hammer-beam Roof of Westminster Hall and the Structural Rationale of Hugh Herland

AbstractThis paper examines the carpentry of the late medieval roof of Westminster Hall. The structure, a hammer-beam roof, is analysed from the perspective of the king's carpenter Hugh Herland. This analysis is based on drawings made in 1913 to facilitate the repair of the roof, and on the author's archaeological reconstruction of the carpentry based on those drawings. Herland's experience at Winchester in the early 1390s, immediately before beginning work at Westminster, is also considered. The paper also places the Westminster roof in the context of earlier hammer-beam roofs, particularly Pilgrims' Hall, Winchester. It concludes that the hammer-beam carpentry was crucial to the roof's structure, and that Herland intended the hall's ‘great arched ribs’ primarily as ornamental components.

Diverse construction types and local timber sources characterize early medieval church roofs in southwestern Sweden

A vast number of early medieval roof structures are still preserved in Swedish churches, yet countrywide surveys and detailed dendrochronological investigations, in tandem with building archaeology, are largely lacking. Here, we present new findings from four parish churches (Forsby, Forshem, Gökhem and Marka) in Västergötland, southwestern Sweden. The roof constructions, made from local oak and pine trees, were dated to the period between AD 1131 and 1157, making these some of the oldest preserved roof structures in Sweden and Europe. With the development of new regional pine and oak tree-ring chronologies covering the 10th to 13th centuries, we open up the discussion about medieval timber technology, wood utilization and the potential for future tree-ring based paleo-environmental exploration.

Hidden dates. Dendrochronological research on medieval churches in Transylvania

Dendrochronology is a dating method which uses tree ring data of living trees and tree ring series measured on historical and archaeological wood. In optimal circumstances dendrochronology can produce absolute dating with a half-year accuracy. Due to research carried out by our team, initiated in 2003, we can use now two master chronologies to date oak and fi r structures in Transylvania for the period between the 13th and 19th centuries, a couple of absolutely dated series for the 12th to 14th centuries, and also some fl oating series for the late migration period (7th ‒ 8th centuries) and Roman period. Th e article presents a few case studies of dendrochronological research on medieval churches from this region (Darjiu, Targu Mureş, Cetatea de Baltă, Bistriţa, Sibiu). During these campaigns of fi eldwork and following analyses we successfully dated more medieval roofs and later renovation phases. So far the earliest dated roof is the structure above the Evangelic church in Sibiu, where the timber material comes from trees felled at the middle of the 14th century. Th e method is also used to date art objects (altar panels) and wood installations (painted ceilings, furniture). To extend the validity of the present chronologies, both in time and space (in Moldova and the Romanian Plain), stronger archaeological involvement will be needed.

Precise tree-ring dating of building activities despite the absence of bark: A case-study on medieval church roofs in Damme, Belgium

A detailed dendrochronological survey was performed on the medieval roofs of the Church of Our Lady (CoOL) in Damme, Belgium. Seen its complex architectural history, special attention was paid to the identification of consecutive building phases, based on combined architectural historical research and tree-ring dating. In total 64 increment cores were taken throughout the roof structures of the CoOL. All roof timbers are made of European oak (Quercus robur/petraea), of which only few have surviving sapwood or bark. Tree-ring dating confirms the late 13th/early 14th century construction date of the roofs. For all chronologies that were composed, the highest correlation values are found with reference chronologies covering the catchment area of the river Meuse. From the dating results of the timbers of the CoOL it becomes clear that the same timber source was used for nearly a century. On several of the examined roof timbers, rafting joints were observed, demonstrating that the timbers were indeed tied together as a raft and floated down the river.By implementing sapwood estimates in a Bayesian chronological model (OxCal), tree-ring series with surviving sapwood from coeval roof structures were combined in order to narrow down the time range for the felling date. Based on the refined interpretation of the felling dates, several consecutive building phases can now be identified and dated, leading to a new interpretation of the architectural history of the CoOL. Intriguingly, a marked interruption in building activities is observed around 1300. Probably this is related to the instable political situation at that time, caused by the armed conflict that emerged between the Count of Flanders and the king of France. Since Damme served as the outport of the riotous city of Bruges, it was alternately seized by the French and Flemish, both consuming considerable amounts of timber and other building materials for military fortifications. Potentially this led to a shortage in building materials and provoked a stop in building activities.This paper demonstrates the power of Bayesian models to refine the interpretation of dendrochronological dates in architectural analyses of medieval historical buildings.

Coleoptera from Late Medieval Smoke-Blackened Thatch (SBT): their Archaeological Implications

Distinctive assemblages of Coleoptera (beetles) recovered from seven samples of smoke-blackened thatch (SBT)from a range of late medieval roofs in the south of England are listed. The age, ecology and possible origins of this fauna are discussed. Although its precise origin is known, it is suggested that its occurrence is not limited to thatch, and so cannot be used as a 'finger print' for thatch per se. A find of Sitophilus granarius, the 'granary weevil', suggests that thatch may represent another route by which this species has been incorporated into the archaeological record.

Coleoptera from Late Medieval Smoke-Blackened Thatch (SBT): their Archaeological Implications

Distinctive assemblages of Coleoptera (beetles) recovered from seven samples of smoke-blackened thatch (SBT)from a range of late medieval roofs in the south of England are listed. The age, ecology and possible origins of this fauna are discussed. Although its precise origin is known, it is suggested that its occurrence is not limited to thatch, and so cannot be used as a 'finger print' for thatch per se. A find of Sitophilus granarius, the 'granary weevil', suggests that thatch may represent another route by which this species has been incorporated into the archaeological record.

Norwich Cathedral: church, city and diocese, 1096-1996

Cathedral, founded in 1096 by Bishop Herbert de Losinga, is of outstanding importance both architecturally and historically. Its archives, dating back to the time of its foundation, as well as the building itself, its decoration and contents, constitute an unbroken and fascinating record. Norwich Cathedral, 1096-1996 deals with all aspects of the church's history, both institutional and artistic. Written by experts, and heavily illustrated, it has been designed to be accessible to the general reader. The building itself is Romanesque, augmented by later Gothic campaigns. It has of course also undergone repair and modification throughout the centuries both in detail and occasionally in substance. It nevertheless keeps its early identity essentially intact. Its contents, from all periods of its history but notably the middle ages, are themselves of great interest: the medieval roof bosses are uniquely rich, as are the wall paintings.

The Medieval Roof of Marwell Hall, Hampshire

Marwell Hall Hampshire (fig. I), N. G. Ref. SU 508217, stands in the middle of the well known Zoological Park, and now serves as the main administrative building of Marwell Preservation Trust. Until a few years ago, it was supposed that the house dated originally from the reign of Elizabeth I, though it had clearly been extensively refashioned in Tudor-Gothick style in the early nineteenth century; indeed Sir Nikolaus Pevsner (Pevsner and Lloyd 1967, 331) considered that the house had been completely built in the latter period.

Medieval Roofs with Base-Crucks and Short Principals: Additional Evidence

Medieval Roofs with Base-Crucks and Short Principals: Additional Evidence

Medieval Roofs with Base-Crucks and Short Principals

SummaryThis paper examines, from two points of view, a collection of some ninety buildings with base-cruck trusses, and a further group of related buildings, particularly those whose roof trusses incorporate short principals. Examination of the social status of the buildings shows that they belonged to a remarkably homogeneous section of feudal society, and their distribution can be explained largely in terms of the social connections of a class, with some further influence of local schools of carpentry. The typological development of base-crucks and short principals is traced from their twelfth- or thirteenth-century origins to a fifteenth-century devolution into various local sub-types.

V.—Westminster Abbey: The Timber Roofs of the Collegiate Church of St. Peter at Westminster

The timber roofs above the main vaults of the abbey, coeval with the parts of the building they cover, are illustrated in J. P. Neale and E. W. Brayley, History and Antiquities of the Abbey Church of St. Peter, Westminster (1823), ii. These important medieval roofs are described only very briefly in an addendum to the Inventory of Westminster Abbey by the Royal Commission on Historical Monuments published in 1924 (entry no. 22a, slip p. 58), and no detailed description of them has so far been published. They underwent heavy restoration at the beginning of the eighteenth century, but survived in great part until the present repairs under the direction of Mr. S. E. Dykes Bower were put in hand. By 1964 the whole of the nave roof had been reconstructed and the roof over the south transept had been taken down and reconstruction was in progress. No major repairs to the roofs of the presbytery or the north transept had been started. At this stage, by kind permission of the Dean and Chapter, the Royal Commission was given facilities to make detailed records of the surviving medieval structures. In the following account the documentary evidence relating to their building and repair is outlined, their construction is described in some detail, and, finally, their historical context and their setting in the general development of roof construction are discussed. The photographs were taken by Mr. J. Parkinson, and the work has been co-ordinated by Mr. A. R. Dufty, Secretary to the Commission.

Medieval Roofs: A Classification

(1958). Medieval Roofs: A Classification. Archaeological Journal: Vol. 115, No. 1, pp. 111-149.