Medieval Epoch Research Articles

Images of Ethnic Others in Western Medieval Art

This paper seeks to provide an overview of the characteristic traits of the images of the ethnic Others, the connection of these images to the fundamental ethic and aesthetic categories, as well as the political events of the medieval epoch. Medieval art depicted various ethnic groups like Jews, Saracens, Mongols, Blacks, and eventually, people from the New World. Their representations share both common and distinct characteristics. Common traits encompass distinct appearances, clothing details, associated attributes, and their correlation with political events. They also exhibit imprecision, conventionality, and fluidity in defining the boundaries between these different groups. Moreover, they reflect cultural and political influences and blend real and fantastical elements, often intertwined with religious and ethical categories, which were fundamental in the medieval worldview. Herewith, the images of the Others also had some specific traits.

A New Study Concerning the Byzantine-Bulgarian Relations in the Early Medieval Epoch

A New Study Concerning the Byzantine-Bulgarian Relations in the Early Medieval Epoch

Hindus and Muslims in Medieval North India: Stages of Reciprocal Perception

Migrating to India and becoming a part of its population, the Muslims passed through different stages in their perception by Hindus. The article discusses these stages of this process–from alienation to familiarity, from generalisation to individualisation–as reflected in some literary texts of medieval epoch. A significant contributor to this development was the growth of Muslim population due not to migration only, but, more significantly, to the conversion of local people who, accepting the new religion, remained familiar with many aspects of regional culture and lifestyle. The other side of the process, the Muslim view of Hindus, is also studied, to demonstrate that, despite observable differences, the followers of both religions took the same direction that led to the recognition of the ‘other’ as a natural part of a socially and culturally heterogeneous entity

A data assimilation approach to last millennium temperature field reconstruction using a limited high-sensitivity proxy network

AbstractWe use theNorthern Hemisphere Tree-RingNetwork Development (NTREND) tree-ring database to examine the effects of using a small, highly-sensitive proxy network for paleotemperature data assimilation over the last millennium. We first evaluate our methods using pseudo-proxy experiments. These indicate that spatial assimilations using this network are skillful in the extratropical Northern Hemisphere and improve on previous NTREND reconstructions based on Point-by-Point regression. We also find our method is sensitive to climate model biases when the number of sites becomes small. Based on these experiments, we then assimilate the real NTREND network. To quantify model prior uncertainty, we produce 10 separate reconstructions, each assimilating a different climate model. These reconstructions are most dissimilar prior to 1100 CE, when the network becomes sparse, but show greater consistency as the network grows. Temporal variability is also underestimated before 1100 CE. Our assimilation method produces spatial uncertainty estimates and these identify treeline North America and eastern Siberia as regions that would most benefit from development of new millennial-length temperature-sensitive tree-ring records. We compare our multi-model mean reconstruction to five existing paleo-temperature products to examine the range of reconstructed responses to radiative forcing. We find substantial differences in the spatial patterns and magnitudes of reconstructed responses to volcanic eruptions and in the transition between the Medieval epoch and Little Ice Age. These extant uncertainties call for the development of a paleoclimate reconstruction intercomparison framework for systematically examining the consequences of proxy network composition and reconstruction methodology and for continued expansion of tree-ring proxy networks.

Contributions of Muslim Mechanical Engineers In Modern Automata (In the light of Kitāb al-Ḥiyal of al- Ǧazarī) A Descriptive and Analytical study

Did the Muslims in ancient times were highly proficient in mechanical engineering? Did they have a head start over the West in this field? Unfortunately, it is noticeable nowadays that Arabs and Muslims all over the world became just consumers; exploiting all technological developments of the West, that are rapidly growing. Here we had to wonder whether the Arab Muslims, long ago, were in this manner? This research hypothesizes that Muslims had attained an advanced level in mechanical engineering and were the inventors of the self-moving artefacts; recently known as automata. Accordingly, this research has undertaken the mission to prove that assumption. This paper focuses on automata machines, in the light of «kitāb al-Ḥiyal» of the Muslim engineer al- Ǧazarī. This book -initially manuscript- included a detailed description for these machines accompanied with painted illustrations known as «miniatures». The paper begins with a preface dealing with the meaning of fine technology and automata, followed by the story of automata since antique ages and until the medieval epochs. The latter element is an indication to Muslims’ contributions on mechanical engineering in general, and automata in particular. This is supported by previewing samples on automata «self-moving» machines according to the miniatures of «kitāb al-Ḥiyal ». This is followed by a briefed biography of the book author al- Ǧazarī, historical and artistic analysis for the book itself. Finally, there is a concise scientific analysis for the chosen samples of automata and their relevancy with modern machines and advanced technological industries. Conclusively, in relation to the value of «kitāb al-Ḥiyal» that is dated back to the 7th century A.H/ 13th century A.D, this research accentuated that automata machines are not a Western invention. Definitely, they are an outcome of the Golden Age of the Islamic civilization, proving their supremacy in mechanical engineering since the medieval epochs.هل کان للعرب المسلمين قديما باع في علم الهندسة الميکانيکية؟ وهل کان لهم السبق على الغرب في هذا المجال؟ من الملاحظ حاليا أن العرب والمسلمين في شتى دول العالم -تقريبا- أصبحوا مجرد مستهلکون لما ينتجه الغرب في شتى المجالات، نتيجة لما وصل اليه الغرب من تقدم وتطور تکنولوجي مستمر ومتنامي بسرعة فائقة. وهنا کان لابد لنا ان نتساءل هل کان العرب المسلمين على هذا الحال قديما؟ يقوم هذا البحث على اثبات فرضية أن العلماء المسلمين قد حققوا تقدما کبيرا في مجال الهندسة الميکانيکية، واستطاعوا ابتکار آلات ذاتية الحرکة، والمعروفة حديثا بـ »الأتمته«. ووفقا لذلک، کان الهدف الأساسي لهذا البحث هو إثبات صحة هذه الفرضية. يتناول هذا البحث بعض نماذج من الآلات ذاتية الحرکة؛ وذلک من خلال کتاب »الجامع بين العلم والعمل النافع في معرفة الحيل الهندسية« لمؤلفه العالم المسلم الجزري. تضمن الکتاب - في الأصل مخطوط - وصف تفصيلي لهذه الآلات الميکانيکية ذاتية الحرکة، وکيفية تنفيذها مشفوعا بالتصاوير الملونة المعروفة اصطلاحا بـ »المنمنمات«. تتکون خطة البحث من تمهيد يتناول التعريف بما يصطلح عليه التکنولوجيا الدقيقة والأتمته » الآلات ذاتية الحرکة«، ويلي ذلک تاريخ الأتمته بدءا من العصور القديمة وحتى العصور الوسطى. کما سيتناول البحث إسهامات علماء المسلمين في مجال الهندسة الميکانيکية بشکل عام، وفي مجال انتاج الآلات ذاتية الحرکة بشکل خاص، مدعوما باستعراض نماذج للآلات ذاتية الحرکة تم شرحها ضمن »کتاب الحيل«. ويلي ذلک السيرة الذاتية للعالم المسلم اسماعيل بن الرزاز الملقب بـ »الجزري «، بالإضافة إلى تحليل تاريخي وفني موجز عن المخطوط محل الدراسة. وفي النهاية سيتم عمل دراسة تحليلية للنماذج المختارة من الآلات ذاتية الحرکة وعلاقتهم بالآلات الحديثة والصناعات التکنولوجية المتطورة. وفي المجمل واستنادا على »کتاب الحيل«، والذي يعود تاريخه للقرن ٧هـ/ ١٣م تمکن هذا البحث من التدليل على أن الآلات ذاتية الحرکة ليست اختراعا غربيا؛ بل هي نتاج الحضارة الإسلامية، ودليل ملموس على مدى تفوقهم في مجال الهندسة الميکانيکية منذ العصور الوسطى.

Interview with Benjamin Bagby, Medieval Musician

Benjamin (Ben) Bagby is one of the world’s distinguished medievalists, and is particularly well-known for his scholarly, yet passionate performances of the music of the medieval epoch — both with the ensemble Sequentia, which he co-founded, and as a soloist. In the fi eld of solo performance he is renowned for bringing to life the important Anglo-Saxon epic Beowulf — presenting it, as far as contemporary scholarship and vivid artistic imagination can allow, in an authentic “bardic” manner. This wide-ranging interview has much discussion of his career in both regards, as well as his experience as a professor at the Sorbonne. Readers who may wish, after reading this interview, to know more about this important musician and scholar can visit these two websites: www.BagbyBeowulf.com / www.Sequentia.org

The Spoils of War “Divided into Three Parts”: A Comparison between Two Accounts in Skylitzes’ Synopsis historiarum and Kritoboulos’ History of Mehmed the Conqueror

One can say without hesitation that during the highly dynamic medieval epoch rivalries and military clashes were of paramount importance in the struggles for dominance over the Balkan Peninsula. During the entire period, war-time activities included the capturing of those who had the misfortune to fall into the hands of the enemy. Various groups of soldiers and civilians alike have repeatedly tested the bitterness of captivity. Attempts to trace the fate of war-captives are, for understandable reasons, directly dependent on the data in the written records. The comparison of the various historical accounts is rather typical, even if the records deal with events that are different in time, place and participants. The present paper also compares two descriptions. This study encompasses two well-known historical accounts: the first one is from the chronicle (Synopsis historiarum) of John Skylitzes, while the second one is excerpted from Kritoboulos’ History of Mehmed the Conqueror. Despite all distinctions, there are some particular similarities. Both fragments concern the division of the spoils of war and the fate of the captured population and provide additional knowledge of the practices relating to prisoners of war in the Balkan medieval past.

LONG-TERM spectral components of global, north and south hemisphere temperatures over the last millennium and solar-lunar forcing

Data of temperature anomalies from different sites worldwide for the last millennium are used to extract long-term components in global, northern and southern hemisphere temperatures for their quantitative contribution to climate change to evaluate and to search for possible causes. The Method of Global Minimum which is capable of making a self-consistent selection of trends from a data set and singling out harmonics with varying phase and amplitude is applied. Quantitative description of all components of the spectra including trends extracted for the first time by self-consistent method is given and discussed. Temperature trends have highest amplitude in north, south hemispheres and globally that leads to their largest contribution to climate change. Trend in north hemisphere temperature described by nonstationary sinusoid at period ∼1270 yr shows maximum near 1300 (medieval warming), deep minimum near 1700 (Maunder's minimum) and rise since 1700 to present. Trend in south hemisphere has smoothed maximum for medieval epoch, minimum near 1800 (Dalton's minimum) and rise since 1800. Both trends go up together since ∼1800, but north hemisphere temperature grows faster. Trend in global temperature described by nonstationary sinusoid at period ∼1000 yr demonstrates deep smoothed minimum near 1750 and subsequent rise with rate of increase ∼0.5 °C/100yr since 1800. Amplitude of the nonstationary cycle began rise since 1250 and continue to rise for present and close future. Temporal changes of amplitude and phase of nonstationary spectral components have typical features of nonlinear oscillations that points to a nonlinear mechanism supporting the periodical oscillations. It is shown that the 33-yr nonstationary component in global temperature has the highest rate of change ∼1.2 °C/100yr or 0.12 °C/10yr, which can explain rapid temperature changes (from warming to subsequent cooling and vice versa). It is also shown that periods of the temperature spectra include integers of periods of historically-known eclipse cycles and of periods related with motions of Jupiter, Saturn and Venus. Therefore Sun and Moon, Jupiter, Saturn and Venus influence on climate variability. The result also means existence of high-number commensurabilities between mean motions in the system Sun –Earth–Moon and these planets.

ANTHROPOCENTRISM AND THE EXPLOITATION OF NATURE: AN ECOCRITICAL ANALYSIS OF JOSEPH CONRAD'S HEART OF DARKNESS

One of the defining eras in the history of mankind is the Age of Enlightenment. While it acted as a bridge between contemporary times and the classical and the medieval epochs of mankind's existence, it ushered in new forms of challenges that the modern society is grappling with, among which the depletion of nature, occasioned by wanton exploitation, is one. Among other creeds of the Age of Enlightenment is the focus on reason as the source of authority. It is also known that the ability to reason resides with humans and humans' ability to reason, among others, account for the promotion of a human centred view of the universe, which further gave impetus to the rise and growth of science and technology. This advancement affects all other aspects of existence, including the non-human world. Thus, using the ideological postulations of ecocriticism, this paper examines how the view of humans being the point of reference of existence empowers the mind to exploit the non-human world as well as other humans. From the analysis, this paperdiscovers that by elevating human experience and values as the loci of the universe, humans assume a god-father status over the elements of nature. This depletion is made possible through the instrumentation of science and technology. This paper concludes that the anthropocentric views ushered by the Age of Enlightenment empowered humans to explore and subsequently exploit the non-human world. Due to this, there is a need to move from an anthropocentric perception of the universe to a nature oriented view of existence in a bid to save the earth both for the present and the future.

True blue: the connection between colour and loyalty in the later Middle Ages

ABSTRACTThis article examines the relationship between the colour blue and the virtue of loyalty during the later Middle Ages. While it may not have been a colour with powerful symbolic resonances earlier in the medieval epoch, blue came to be regarded as increasingly prestigious as the period progressed. References to its association with loyalty and its concomitant virtues appear on the Continent and found their way to England. After briefly outlining the significance of blue in the medieval period, the paper examines this connection between colour and virtue in literature, heraldic treatises and works of art, arguing that it became generally accepted, although not all agreed on the association.

Reconstruction of the Climate of the Medieval Epoch Based on Soil and Geochemical Studies of Kurgans of the Srostki Culture in the South of Western Siberia

The environmental diversity of Altai region is of great interest for researchers. There are many monuments of cultural heritage in the region, which are still poorly studied by natural scientific methods. Paleosols and background soils of the large Srostki-I necropolis of the Early Medieval epoch was examined by pedological and geochemical methods with the aim to trace changes in the soil properties over time and to apply these data for reconstruction of the paleoclimate. This group of kurgans is located in Biysk district of the Altai region and, according to the radiocarbon method, dates back to 890 ± 105 – 975 ± 85 AD (calibration 1δ). Paleosols of the Medieval epoch are characterized by a weaker leaching of carbonates in the middle part of the profile, lower accumulation of biophilous elements (P, S, Co) in the upper horizons, and lower values of the weathering index Al₂O₃/(CaO + MgO + Na₂O + K₂O) in comparison with the background surface soils. Thus, in the period before the kurgans’ construction, these paleosols were formed under somewhat drier climate in comparison with the present time. However, the similarity of these paleosols and background surface soils in their morphological properties, reconstructed humus content, and averaged values of weathering indices Al₂O₃ ⋅ 100/(Al₂O₃ + CaO + MgO + Na₂O + K₂O) and Rb/Sr, as well as Mn/Sr, Mn/Al, and Mn/Fe indices characterizing the degree of biological activity attest to humidization of the paleoclimate during the period of construction of the kurgans. Among highly hazardous pollutants of the first toxicity class, the studied soils are enriched with As and Cd (in comparison with natural abundances of these elements in the lithosphere). In general, regional soils and parent material are enriched with As, Ni, Zn, Ba, and Sn, though the concentrations of these heavy metals in the soil profiles remain below the corresponding maximum permissible concentrations. The accumulation of toxic substances under the impact of anthropogenic pollution in the profiles of studied soils does not exceed the permissible values. The concentrations of heavy metals in the background surface soils are no higher than those in the medieval paleosols. The application of GIS technology demonstrated that 21 settlements and 130 necropolises of the Srostki community (second half of the 8th–12th centuries AD) were localized on fertile soils of leveled areas near large lakes and rivers (the Ob, Katun, Biya, Alei, and other rivers) and within wide valleys at the confluence of small streams with larger water bodies.

Analysis of pre-telescopic sunspots and auroras from 8th to 16th century

In this paper, we use non-parametric kernel approach to estimate the probability density function (pdf) of auroral-night and naked-eye-sunspot series over multi-century timescale. We selected the events observed in medieval epoch, and auroral records from low geographical latitude (<45°). These astronomical phenomena are recorded mainly in the Oriental historical sources and much less in Occidental sources. The collected events are published in many recent catalogues. The density function are calculated using the Gaussian kernel, including 95% CI obtained by bootstrapping.Results confirm the existence of strong connection between auroras and sunspot activity, especially from 11th to 16th century. Indeed, a high correlation degree r = 0.72 is obtained for the period AD 800–1500 between the two pdf of sunspots (pdfS) and auroras (pdfA) for bandwidth h = 10 years, and exceed 0.8 for h > 43 years. However, we notice a time-shift between the two density functions. To calculate it, we use the cross-correlation technique, and we find τ = −5.9 years, that is strangely close to the half of solar cycle period. It is very important to note that our results revealed that the high frequency of low latitude auroras occurs before the maximum of naked-eye sunspots activity, and not afterward, on contrary to what is expected.The pdf curves show multiple peaks occurring at quasi-periodic times and show clearly the three grand minima of solar activity: Oort, Wolf and Spörer. In auroral-night data, the mean period at 95% CI obtained is:T‾=61±7years. Using power spectrum analysis, we observe clearly a strong signal of 60 years period that is a new evidence of the existence of such cycle. More importantly, we identified a cycle of 262 years period in the sunspot data, and a new oscillation of 310 years in auroral-night data. These two cycles appear clearly in the pdf curves using optimized bandwidth obtained by the direct plug-in approach of Sheather and Jones.

Sword DHU'L-FAQᾹR in Islamic Miniatures

DHU'L-FAQᾹR is one of the most important swords all over the Islamic history, its fame extended to Islamic art including miniatures. The main argument around DHU'L-FAQᾹR is to whom it belongs to; prophet Mohamed, Imam Ali, Ottomans or one of the twelve Shīʿī Imams as some sources claimed. Historical studies presented various analyses around such a point. This article is a trial to answer this debate through the gate of Islamic miniatures. DHU'L-FAQᾹR is mentioned in more than an illustrated manuscript as the miniaturists were interested in episodes of Imam Ali’s life and the prophet as well. The present study explains its compatibility in such paintings with the real depiction of the sword. The article gives a summarized historical background about the sword with exploring some illustrated examples of various manuscripts dating back to medieval epoch and XVII century.

Stories of Sūrah Al-Kahf in Islamic Miniatures

The research aims to recognize the influence of mentioned historical stories at Quran on the artistic thoughts of the miniaturists in Islamic Manuscripts of medieval epoch and later 17 th century. Questioning if all four fundamental narrations of Sūrah Al-kahf had illuminated on papers of manuscripts or not, with giving chosen examples of miniatures explaining their details, investigating the compatibility of those details with divine text at verses of the Sūrah. The verses presented 4 main narrations; theme of The Companions of the Cave Ashabu Al-Kahf leis between verses 9 –26, theme of the rich and the poor or the owner of 2 gardens that leis between verses 32 – 44, theme of Moses and Al-Al-Khiḍr that leis between verses 60–82, theme of Dhul-Qar-nayn with Gog and Magog between verses 83–98 from the same Sūrah. Although Sūrah Al kahf has another 5 th story of Iblis and Adam but this one is already repeated more times in other verses and chapters while the above 4 mentioned ones are only appeared across verses of Sūrah Alkahf which is the main topic of this article. Not only previous investigations had been introduced stories of Quran, but also full versions of manuscripts presented with Prophets' narrations like Syir Al-nabi [1] and manuscript of Falnameh [2] . While it is assured that no research focusing on stories of Sūrah Al-kahf, as it has been enjoyed various advantages and remarkable rewards at Muslim belief which gave it especial promotion on social thoughts and traditions. This encourages otherwise discussing history of Qur’an texts' reception and presentation through gate of Islamic miniature in the mentality of Muslim miniaturists in the medieval epoch. Study bases on verses of the sūrah narrating those stories and illustrated manuscripts gave the interest to its episodes with analyzing its compatibility with the divine texts. Keywords: Quran, Sūrah Al-kahf, Islamic Miniatures, Illustrated Manuscripts, Islamic painting, Art History, Historical stories, Religious texts.

Angelologia Dionizego Areopagity w świetle pisma De Divina Hierarchia

Artykuł dotyczy najpopularniejszej koncepcji angelologicznej, która istniała w świadomości teologicznej dla całej epoki średniowiecznej. Koncepcja ta była ważna nawet w okresie Soboru Watykańskiego z powodu jej aktualność i wierności obrazu biblijnego świata aniołów.

К изучению Шисаньлина – погребально-поминального комплекса эпохи позднего средневековья в Китае

К изучению Шисаньлина – погребально-поминального комплекса эпохи позднего средневековья в Китае

Current knowledge of Etna's flank eruptions (Italy) occurring over the past 2500 years. From the iconographies of the XVII century to modern geological cartography

Knowledge of Etna's eruptions has been profoundly influenced by the illustrations, though these can only provide limited information on the lava flows and their effects on the territory. Indeed, the absence of iconographic sources or again the disparity between the physical reality and the illustrations has led to many gaps and uncertainties that have lasted for centuries. This paper traces the progress of the representations of the historical eruptions of Etna volcano, from the earliest attempts in the 17th century, be they iconographic documents or pictorial illustrations, to the modern geological cartography of 21st century. It seeks to reconstruct the evolution of the history and methods of representing Etnean eruptions, highlighting the crucial steps in the progress of knowledge on the historical flank eruptions. The turning point in the long process of drawing and rendering the eruptions of Etna came with the work of Sartorius von Waltershausen, with the realization of the first geological map of the volcano at a 1:50,000 scale between 1836 and 1843. In this long history of the representations of eruptions, begun in the 17th century, Sartorius' cartography finally overcame the problem of rendering these events in space by inserting the notion of history in the map. What now remained for those engaged in mapping the volcano was to solve the issue of defining the “time” of Etna's historical lava flows. This would be tackled only at the end of the 20th century with a multidisciplinary approach comprising stratigraphy, historiographical studies and the dating of the lavas. In this frame, the present state of the knowledge of the flank eruptions occurring on Etna in the past 2500year has evidenced that during the Greek-Roman and Medieval epochs up to the 17th century flank eruptions commonly involved the middle-lower slopes, impacting mainly the south sector of the volcano with the location of the eruptive fissure sometimes below 1000m of altitude. This eruptive behavior of the volcano has been radically modified following the occurrence of the large 1669 eruptions since the opening of the fissures was mainly concentrated in the upper-middle slopes between 1600m and 2500m a.s.l.

Non-parametric Data Analysis of Low-latitude Auroras and Naked-eye Sunspots in the Medieval Epoch

We have studied solar activity by analyzing naked-eye sunspot observations and aurorae borealis observed at latitudes below \(45^{\circ}\). We focused on the medieval epoch by considering the non-telescopic observations of sunspots from AD 974 to 1278 and aurorae borealis from AD 965 to 1273 that are reported in several Far East historical sources, primarily in China and Korea. After setting selection rules, we analyzed the distribution of these individual events following the months of the Gregorian calendar. In December, an unusual peak is observed with data recorded in both China and Japan, but not within Korean data.

Enjambment and End-stopping in the Magnum Opus of the Three Renowned poets: Chaucer, Gower, Langland

Poetry, being one of the two main categories of literature in general, has recently been subject to subordinate attention in literatures in terms of form, especially the poetic part of medieval epoch. Alongside the structural and semantic aspects of poetry, there still remain some elements of this style not fully investigated and developed. Amongst such we can name end-stopping andenjambment, which are some categorical elements, most of the poets, either intentionally or ignorantly, have administered from the medieval era to the present time. In this paper, the existence of enjambment and end-stopping was investigated in three of most renowned poetic works of Middle-English era, including Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, Gower's Confessio Amantis, Langand's Piers the Plowman. By comparing the original text of the poems with the translated form of them, it was understood that the existence of end-stopping was more significant and the number of end-stopped lines were more than enjambed ones. It was then concluded that medieval poets, specially these three, used mostly a language simple in structure and easy to understand syntactically, free from the complexity that enjambment brings to the lines.

Composing Space/Calculating Space-Time Rhythms

In this treatise, Katarzyna Kobro and Władysław Strzemiński distinguish between the condition of painting (which features a picture on a support with physical imits) and of sculpture (which involves space, which is limitless) and propose that the ways in which each medium determines its own essence must be fundamentally different. While painting relies on what would later be called “deductive structure,” in sculpture the issue is how to relate the object to space. After conducting a chronological examination of the different ways in which the sculptural object has related to space (in the Ancient, Medieval, Renaissance, and Baroque epochs), Kobro and Strzemiński propose various ways in which sculpture can not only relate to space but to “unite” with it via such solutions as polychrony and a disjunctive syntax through which the object itself eludes the perception of its identity.