International Conflict Mediation Research Articles

The Evolution of Mediation in International Conflicts from 1940s to 2020s

The article analyzes the evolution of international mediation from the middle of the 20th century to the present day. How do changes in international environment influence mediation and research on it? The paper’s hypothesis is that the transformation of international order and political organization of the world, the dynamics of (de)globalization and changes in the nature of international conflict determine the specifics of international mediation and shape the relevant research. Over the last 80 years international mediation evolved through three stages. During the first stage, shaped by the cold war, conflicts were mostly of interstate nature and were settled by states and international organizations. Meanwhile, the growing activity of non-state actors led to the emergence of mediation via “track II diplomacy”. At this stage, the study of international mediation becomes an established research area. The second stage, since the end of 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, witnessed a rapid progress in the settlement of many protracted regional conflicts, aided by the mediation efforts of the USSR and the United States. In Russia, research on international mediation, previously fragmentary and legalistic, developed into a separate subfield of international studies. During the third stage, in the 21st century, the political organization of the world has been undergoing a turbulent transformation at all the three levels: Westphalian system, the system of interstate relations, and political systems of individual states. The all-encompassing nature of this change increases conflict potential and changes the nature of international conflicts, which become multidimensional and involve a variety of actors. Responding to the demand for managing complex conflicts, new trends in mediation emerge, such as the growth in mediation attempts by developing nations, engagement of peacekeeping missions in mediation, the use of digital technologies for mediation purposes. At the same time, the erosion of the old political organization of the world triggers the rise in identity-based conflicts that involve disagreement over values. As parties to such conflicts are less likely to seek interestbased compromises, the likelihood of successful mediation decreases.

China’s new mediating role and the Palestinian-Israeli conflict

ABSTRACT In recent years, China has been involved in more state-to-state conflicts as a mediator as a part of its increased global influence strategy. After the successful mediation between Iran and Saudi Arabia in March 2023 and the mediation process it has employed between the Taliban and Pakistan since 2022, Beijing will likely continue those efforts in other conflicts. But how does China select which international conflict to mediate? The article employs Kenneth Waltz’s Neorealism Theory and international mediation literature to investigate this question while focusing on China’s interests as a rising power in the international system. First, the article analyzes China’s role and interest in two recent case studies of international conflict mediation: Iran-Saudi Arabia and the Taliban-Pakistan. Second, the article builds a model or a roadmap of China’s mechanism as a mediator. Then, the article employs the model to discuss and assess China’s future role in the Palestinian-Israeli Conflict in the wake of the 10/07 massacres and the Israel-Hamas war.

The role of mediation in international conflict resolution

International conflicts are becoming increasingly complex and pose a threat to world stability and security. In this context, mediation acquires key importance as a mechanism to prevent violence and find a peaceful solution. This article explores the important role of mediation in the process of resolving international conflicts. International conflicts are growing in complexity and protractedness, requiring effective resolution mechanisms to prevent violence and mitigate tensions between parties. Mediation is a key tool in resolving such conflicts, providing neutral mediation and creating a fruitful platform for dialog.
 The article analyzes various aspects of mediation in international conflicts, including the roles of mediators, the methods and strategies used to resolve differences, and examples of successful and unsuccessful mediation attempts in the history of international relations. The importance of neutrality, trust, and diplomatic skill for effective mediation is highlighted.
 Challenges associated with mediation in international conflicts, such as the reluctance of parties to mediate, difficulties in enforcing agreements, and external influences on the mediation process, are discussed. The author suggests ways to overcome these challenges, including strengthening international support for mediators, using innovative mediation techniques and tools, and improving coordination and cooperation among international organizations.
 The article emphasizes that mediation is an effective tool for easing tensions between parties to a conflict and ensuring neutral mediation. The author examines the different roles of mediators, their methods and strategies used to facilitate dialog and reach agreement. Examples of successful and unsuccessful mediation cases in the history of international relations are presented, highlighting key factors influencing the success of this process.
 Particular attention is paid to the challenges mediators face in resolving international conflicts. These challenges include the difficulty of establishing trust between the parties, the reluctance of the parties to recognize the need for mediation, and the influence of external actors on the course and outcome of mediation efforts. The author suggests strategies to overcome these challenges, including strengthening diplomatic efforts and utilizing innovative approaches.
 The concluding sections of the article emphasize the importance of further research on mediation and international conflict resolution. The author calls for increased support for mediators from international organizations and states, as well as well as the active implementation of mediation approaches in conflict resolution to ensure peace and stability in the global arena.

Communication and community. An ELF perspective on critical contexts

This paper examines current ways in which the concept of ‘community’ has been operationalized in sociolinguistics and how they relate to thinking about communication. It argues that in the age of globalization, well-established ideas about community need to be radically re-thought in order to ensure compatibility with contemporary life, characterized by de-territorialization, fluidity and virtuality. This is particularly crucial when it comes to high-stakes encounters in critical contexts, such as international conflict mediation, interpreting, asylum procedures and international publishing. These are very often carried out via (English as) a lingua franca, (E)LF for short. Describing and analyzing these encounters is not just a matter of carrying out sociolinguistic, ethnographic and anthropological research but is essentially an applied linguistic undertaking, in that the conditions of ELF communication are inextricably interwoven with significant socio-political, socio-economic and humanitarian issues of misunderstanding, inequity and disenfranchisement. It is therefore imperative to think clearly about the concepts that provide the basis for wide-reaching decisions in these critical contexts. The contribution of ELF research is thus that it not only helps us to understand how “communication communities” work; but also has an important part to play in the critical appraisal of well-entrenched but potentially unsuitable and anachronistic notions in sociolinguistics and in bringing our conceptual and methodological tools in line with the realities of globalization.

Disentangling bias: national capabilities, regime type, and international conflict mediation

Existing literature on bias and third-party conflict management mainly focuses on the dichotomy of whether the mediator’s bias as a whole can contribute to mediation onset and outcomes. I argue that we need more specific and disaggregated research on the mediator’s bias because the side on which a prospective mediator’s bias lies may significantly affect the likelihood of mediation onset. Why are some biased mediations initiated by third parties while others are not? By disentangling the mediator’s bias and by distinguishing between different levels of bias, I find that the likelihood of mediation onset tends to increase if the potential mediator shares a closer political relationship with a conflicting state that has greater national capabilities or that is more authoritarian than the counterparty. However, the effect is largely conditional on the levels of the mediator’s bias, where a more obvious level of bias is more likely to facilitate mediation initiation. This article advances our understanding of...

Ukraine, Protracted Conflicts and the osce

Aspects of the Ukraine crisis present enormous problems for the future of osce and other international conflict mediation. Annexation, “hybrid” warfare, the proliferation of non-recognized separatist polities, the absence of a shared baseline of facts and, therefore, the sharp divergence of narratives, and perhaps most of all, the development of fortress mentalities – all of these have challenged the “Helsinki acquis” on which the osce is based. Developments in the protracted conflicts – greater Russian control over three of the separatist polities to the point of crypto-annexation and the spread of the idea that democracy and human rights are no more than tools of Western imperialist domination – affect the way in which the osce and its mediators are perceived. The cycle of Russian assertiveness and Western response has created a self-reinforcing spiral that consolidates alliances among those who share a fortress mentality, is used to justify past actions, discourages “weakness” in the face of pressure, and encourages ever more aggressive responses to it. In the face of this discouraging picture, osce mediators should build on the remaining areas of co-operation – especially on the Karabakh conflict – and emphasize osce impartiality. The osce has always been a “big tent,” a forum of diverse equals, none of whom has a perfect record on democracy and human rights. Criticizing and being criticized is not, therefore, a “double standard,” but a dialogue that enriches all participating States.

Disaggregating Bias: National Capabilities, Democracy, and Mediation Initiation

Much of the existing literature on bias and international conflict mediation has considered whether mediator bias, i.e., the difference in the relationship between a mediator and each of the two conflicting parties, contributes to the effectiveness of mediation. However, in the study of interstate conflict mediation, few efforts have been directed at analyzing when biased mediation is more effective and the specific circumstances under which mediator bias can contribute to mediation initiation. Third parties are more likely to mediate conflicts that are more difficult to resolve bilaterally by the two parties to the conflict. Because the difficulty of settling an interstate conflict is largely contingent upon the influencing factors in terms of the two conflicting states per se, it is therefore necessary to scrutinize the characteristics of the party to the conflict on which a potential mediator’s bias lies. This article argues that the likelihood of the initiation of interstate conflict mediation tends to increase if a mediator shares a closer political relationship with the conflicting state that has greater national capabilities or is more authoritarian than the counterparty. Moreover, when the disparity in national capabilities or level of democracy between two conflicting states is greater, mediation is more likely to be initiated if a mediator has closer political connections with the particular party that has such characteristics. By disentangling potential mediator bias and distinguishing between different levels of bias, an empirical analysis that examines all prospective mediators of interstate conflicts from 1946 to 2000 based on the Issues Correlates of War (ICOW) project dataset supports the argument.

Resolving Impasses in e-Negotiation: Does e-Mediation Work?

In this article we evaluate the performance of an e-mediation system, referred to as VienNA, in an e-negotiation environment. A set of hypotheses drawn from the mediation and e-mediation literatures are explored. Bargaining processes, outcomes, and perceptions are compared for bargainers that have access to the VienNA system with those that do not have access during negotiation. Supporting several of the hypotheses, bargainers with access to the system were more flexible during the process, showed more concession reciprocation, sent more messages dealing with relationships and related sources of conflict, and were more satisfied with both the process and outcome. Early use of the system produced more flexible bargaining and better outcomes than later use, a finding that supports research on mediation in international conflicts. More balanced agreements occurred when bargainers consulted a form of advice known as fairness norms. Implications of these results for theory and practice are discussed along with suggestions for further research.

Canada and International Conflict Mediation

Abstract This article explores the attitudes of Canadian officials towards international conflict mediation and towards the potential for greater official Canadian involvement in the field. The study is based on extensive interviews with Canadian officials who have been involved in mediation at various points over a 20-year period. It finds that Canada, and particularly the Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade (DFAIT), has taken a largely ad hoc approach to its involvement in the field. Prior to the initiation of this study, there had been no attempt to develop an institutional capacity in this field within DFAIT or to keep track of the personnel involved in such experiences, much less to develop a trained cadre of such individuals. This stands in contrast to the efforts of countries that have prioritized mediation as a foreign policy activity, such as some Scandinavian countries and Switzerland. Many of those interviewed pointed to these countries as potential models for Canada in this field, but it became apparent in discussions that most of those interviewees were not necessarily well-informed as to what these countries have done; there was just a general sense that these countries do it well and that Canada could learn from them. Moreover, none of the interviewees demonstrated significant familiarity with the vast literature on mediation. Those interviewed made recommendations as to how Canada might develop its official mediation capacities so as to play a more active and focused role in this field.

Conflict management and the Oslo experience: assessing the success of Israeli–Palestinian peacemaking

The Oslo experience and the signing of an agreement between Israel and the PLO is used as an empirical case study to highlight the nature of successful mediation in international conflicts. To provide a structure for the analysis, the concept of intractable conflicts and their management is utilized. Factors affecting the mediation of intractable conflicts are grouped into two clusters: (a) contextual factors and (b) process factors. The paper focuses on the changing balance of contextual factors and how these created a ripe moment for mediation, and on the particular way the mediation process was carried out. Timing, ripeness and secrecy are identified as the crucial variables that produced the breakthrough in Oslo.

A Comparison of the Effectiveness of International Conflict Mediation Strategies

War and peace, cooperation and conflict, are recurring themes within the study of international relations, whose scholars constantly grapple with the problems of ameliorating disputes and lessening conflict. International mediation, among the various methods existent of resolving international conflict, is regarded as the most effective. 1 This article compares the outcomes associated with various mediation strategies, and assesses the actual effectiveness of international mediation.

From Interests to Identities: Towards a New Emphasis in Interactive Conflict Resolution

This article explores the methods by which practitioners have traditionally approached international conflicts. Approaches focusing on the resources or the interests of the parties can be appropriate methods of resolution in conflicts where resources and interests are the only issues at stake. However, conflicts raging today often contain issues of identity. These identity-based, ethnopolitical conflicts are often resistant to traditional resource- and interest-based resolution methods. This article suggests a different approach, one that emphasizes needs, and in particular identities, of conflicting parties. We suggest that such a focus is essential in working towards resolution in many of the deeply rooted conflicts in today's world. We explore the ARIA model of conflict engagement as a mechanism for a systematic approach to interactive conflict resolution that specifically deals with the complex issues of identity. We also offer a preliminary evaluation of interactive conflict resolution as a general approach in varied international conflict situations. The question of interactive conflict resolution effectiveness is explored using Licklider's data for civil war termination and Bercovitch's data for international conflict mediation.

An evolutionary game theoretical approach to the theory of international regimes

By way of an evolutionary game model we show that mediation in international conflicts might be harmful to the conflicting parties. In fact, under anarchy both parties can be better off than under an international regime if mediation reduces the parties’ reactive capacities (i.e. their abilites to respond to an aggression). This result is applied to issues currently discussed in the literature on international relations such as the role of the United Nations as a mediator of international conflicts.

Conflict Management and the Oslo Experience: Assessing the Success of Israeli–Palestinian Peacemaking

AbstractThe Oslo experience and the signing of an agreement between Israel and the PLO is used as an empirical case study to highlight the nature of successful mediation in international conflicts. To provide a structure for the analysis, the concept of intractable conflicts and their management is utilized. Factors affecting the mediation of intractable conflicts are grouped into two clusters: (a) contextual factors and (b) process factors. The paper focuses on the changing balance of contextual factors and how these created a ripe moment for mediation, and on the particular way the mediation process was carried out. Timing, ripeness and secrecy are identified as the crucial variables that produced the breakthrough in Oslo.