Immune Recognition Mechanisms Research Articles

Engineering cancer cell membranes with endogenously upregulated HSP70 as a reinforced antigenic repertoire for the construction of material-free prophylactic cancer vaccines

Immune cells distinguish cancer cells mainly relying on their membrane-membrane communication. The major challenge of cancer vaccines exists in difficult identification of cancer neoantigens and poor understanding over immune recognition mechanisms against cancer cells, particularly the combination among multiple antigens and the cooperation between antigens and immune-associated proteins. We exploit cancer cell membranes as the whole cancer antigen repertoire and reinforce its immunogenicity by cellular engineering to modulate the cytomembrane's immune-associated functions. This study reports a vaccine platform based on radiation-engineered cancer cells, of which the membrane HSP70 protein as the immune chaperon/traitor is endogenously upregulated. The resulting positive influences are shown to cover immunogenic steps occurring in antigen-presenting cells, including the uptake and the cross-presentation of the cancer antigens, thus amplifying cancer-specific immunogenicity. Membrane vaccines offer chances to introduce desired metal ions through membrane-metal complexation. Using Mn2+ ion as the costimulatory interferon genes agonist, immune activity is enhanced to further boost adaptive cancer immunogenicity. Results have evidenced that this artificially engineered membrane vaccine with favorable bio-safety could considerably reduce tumorigenicity and inhibit tumor growth. This study provides a universally applicable and facilely available cancer vaccine platform by artificial engineering of cancer cells to inherit and amplify the natural merits of cancer cell membranes. Statement of significanceThe major challenge of cancer vaccines exists in difficult identification of cancer neoantigens and poor understanding over immune recognition mechanisms against cancer cells, particularly the combination among multiple antigens and the cooperation between antigens and immune-associated proteins. Cancer cell membrane presents superior advantages as the whole cancer antigen repertoire, including the reported and the unidentified antigens, but its immunogenicity is far from satisfactory. Cellular engineering approaches offer chances to endogenously modulate the immune-associated functions of cell membranes. Such a reinforced vaccine based on the engineered cancer cell membranes matches better the natural immune recognition pathway than the conventional vaccines.

Exosome regulation of immune response mechanism: Pros and cons in immunotherapy

Due to its multiple features, including the ability to orchestrate remote communication between different tissues, the exosomes are the extracellular vesicles arousing the highest interest in the scientific community. Their size, established as an average of 30–150 nm, allows them to be easily uptaken by most cells. According to the type of cells-derived exosomes, they may carry specific biomolecular cargoes used to reprogram the cells they are interacting with. In certain circumstances, exosomes stimulate the immune response by facilitating or amplifying the release of foreign antigens-killing cells, inflammatory factors, or antibodies (immune activation). Meanwhile, in other cases, they are efficiently used by malignant elements such as cancer cells to mislead the immune recognition mechanism, carrying and transferring their cancerous cargoes to distant healthy cells, thus contributing to antigenic invasion (immune suppression). Exosome dichotomic patterns upon immune system regulation present broad advantages in immunotherapy. Its perfect comprehension, from its early biogenesis to its specific interaction with recipient cells, will promote a significant enhancement of immunotherapy employing molecular biology, nanomedicine, and nanotechnology.

Prediction of superantigen active sites and clonal expression of staphylococcal enterotoxin-like W

Objective: The docking and superantigen activity sites of staphylococcal enterotoxin-like W (SElW) and T cell receptor (TCR) were predicted, and its SElW was cloned, expressed and purified. Methods: AlphaFold was used to predict the 3D structure of SElW protein monomers, and the protein models were evaluated with the help of the SAVES online server from ERRAT, Ramachandran plot, and Verify_3D. The ZDOCK server simulates the docking conformation of SElW and TCR, and the amino acid sequences of SElW and other serotype enterotoxins were aligned. The primers were designed to amplify selw, and the fragment was recombined into the pMD18-T vector and sequenced. Then recombinant plasmid pMD18-T was digested with BamHⅠand Hind Ⅲ. The target fragment was recombined into the expression plasmid pET-28a(+). After identification of the recombinant plasmid, the protein expression was induced by isopropyl-beta-D- thiogalactopyranoside. The SElW expressed in the supernatant was purified by affinity chromatography and quantified by the BCA method. Results: The predicted three-dimensional structure showed that the SElW protein was composed of two domains, the amino-terminal and the carboxy-terminal. The amino-terminal domain was composed of 3 α-helices and 6 β-sheets, and the carboxy-terminal domain included 2 α-helices and 7 antiparallel β-sheets composition. The overall quality factor score of the SElW protein model was 98.08, with 93.24% of the amino acids having a Verify_3D score ≥0.2 and no amino acids located in disallowed regions. The docking conformation with the highest score (1 521.328) was selected as the analysis object, and the 19 hydrogen bonds between the corresponding amino acid residues of SElW and TCR were analyzed by PyMOL. Combined with sequence alignment and the published data, this study predicted and found five important superantigen active sites, namely Y18, N19, W55, C88, and C98. The highly purified soluble recombinant protein SElW was obtained with cloning, expression, and protein purification. Conclusions: The study found five superantigen active sites in SElW protein that need special attention and successfully constructed and expressed the SElW protein, which laid the foundation for further exploration of the immune recognition mechanism of SElW.

DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA OF ABDOMINAL SEPSIS IN PATIENTS WITH POSTOPERATIVE PERITONITIS CAUSED BY FAILURE OF THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT SUTURES

The aim is to study changes in nonspecific resistance and cytokine regulation in patients with postoperative peritonitis with abdominal sepsis.
 Materials and methods. In the Ivano-Frankivsk Regional Clinical Hospital of the Ivano-Frankivsk Regional Council hospital in the surgery department 456 patients were treated with postoperative peritonitis during 2000 -2021. Immunological studies were conducted in 66 patients with various degrees of severity of abdominal sepsis and its complications.
 Research results. In patients with abdominal sepsis with postoperative peritonitis caused by the failure of sutures of the gastrointestinal tract, the initial level of CD11a+ is 1.6 times lower than that of control group patients. On the first day after relaparotomy, the level of CD11a+ cells in the blood increased by 1.8 times. On the 7th day of the postoperative period, this indicator corresponded to the control one.
 The initial level of CD16+ cells in the blood, as well as their content on the first day of the postoperative period, did not differ significantly from the control indicators. However, on the seventh day after the operation, this indicator was twice as high as in the control group. In patients with abdominal sepsis with postoperative peritonitis during the entire observation period, the expression of HLA-DR+ molecules on immunocompetent cells did not differ from that in the control group.
 Violation of immune recognition mechanisms was confirmed by the low expression level of HLA-DR+ molecules on immunocompetent cells, which practically did not change in the postoperative period and was twice as low as in the control group during all observation periods.
 The initial level of IL-2 was equal to the control group. On the first day after the operation, the concentration of IL-2 in the blood decreased by half, compared to the control level. On the seventh day after the operation, a further decrease in the concentration of IL-2 in the blood was observed by 2.2 times compared to the control level.
 The concentration of IL-4 in the plasma of patients with abdominal sepsis with postoperative peritonitis caused by the failure of the sutures of the gastrointestinal tract, who died in the postoperative period, was not determined during the entire observation period.
 The plasma content of IL-6 at the initial level was 1.7 times higher than that of the control group. This indicator was twice the control level after relaparotomy. By the seventh day of the postoperative period, its increase in 4.5 times compared to practically healthy individuals.
 Thus, the failure of sutures is accompanied by an imbalance of cytokine regulation of the immune response: a permanent decrease in the plasma concentration of IL-2, against the background of the absence of IL-4 in the blood, is combined with a progressive increase in the content of IL-6 in the blood, which creates an additional cytokine signal of suppression of the immune response. Such changes are regarded as an inadequate reaction of the immune system to a potential infection of the abdominal cavity.
 Conclusions. These changes in non-specific resistance and cytokine regulation, in particular such indicators as CD11a, CD162, CD95, CD16, HLA-DR+, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6 showed their high diagnostic informativ and sensitivity in predicting the development of abdominal sepsis in patients with postoperative peritonitis caused by failure of sutures of the gastrointestinal tract.

Molecular characterization of peptidoglycan recognition proteins from Mytilus coruscus

Mytilus shows great immune resistance to various bacteria from the living waters, indicating a complex immune recognition mechanism against various microbes. Peptidoglycan recognition proteins (PGRPs) play an important role in the defense against invading microbes via the recognition of the immunogenic substance peptidoglycan (PGN). Therefore, eight PGRPs were identified from the gill transcriptome of Mytilus coruscus. The sequence features, expression pattern in various organs and larval development stages, and microbes induced expression profiles of these Mytilus PGRPs were determined. Our data revealed the constitutive expression of PGRPs in various organs with relative higher expression level in immune-related organs. The expression of PGRPs is developmentally regulated, and most PGRPs are undetectable in larvae stages. The expression level of most PGRPs was significantly increased with in vivo microbial challenges, showing strong response to Gram-positive strain in gill and digestive gland, strong response to Gram-negative strain in hemocytes, and relative weaker response to fungus in the three tested organs. In addition, the function analysis of the representative recombinant expressed PGRP (rMcPGRP-2) confirmed the antimicrobial and agglutination activities, showing the immune-related importance of PGRP in Mytilus. Our work suggests that Mytilus PGRPs can act as pattern recognition receptors to recognize the invading microorganisms and the antimicrobial effectors during the innate immune response of Mytilus.

P7 Banging your head against the (fungal) wall

Plenary session 7, September 23, 2022, 2:00 PM - 3:00 PMFor a fungus, there may be nothing as biologically variable and highly regulated as its cell wall. This makes the wall intellectually and methodologically challenging to study, but worth the effort because they have the potential to reveal novel targets for antifungal drugs and the mechanisms that are important for immune recognition. Differences and adaptations to the cell wall composition can serve to resist chemotherapy and create a moving target for efficient immune recognition. We have used a variety of microscopic, forward, and reverse genetic and immunological tools to generate a new spatially accurate model of the cell wall and to explore how dynamic changes in the wall influence drug efficacy and immune surveillance. We show that the cell has a mechanism to maintain wall robustness within physiological limits. We also have demonstrated that immune-relevant epitopes can be diffuse or clustered, superficial or buried in the cell wall and they changed during batch culture and between yeast, hypha, and other cellular morphologies. We have screened libraries of mutants with immune pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) to define the sub-set of fungal genes that assemble and regulate immune epitopes. This is revealing novel processes that are important for the assembly of the cell wall. These experiments demonstrate that the fungal cell surface is ordered, complex and dynamically changing, requiring immune recognition to mobilize the concerted action of multiple receptors operating singly and in combination. My presentation will focus on work that demonstrates and describes recent advances that have generated a scaler and dynamic model of the cell wall that illuminates mechanisms of immune recognition and cell wall homeostasis.

Like Brothers in Arms: How Hormonal Stimuli and Changes in the Metabolism Signaling Cooperate, Leading HPV Infection to Drive the Onset of Cervical Cancer.

Despite all precautionary actions and the possibility of using vaccinations to counteract infections caused by human papillomaviruses (HPVs), HPV-related cancers still account for approximately 5% of all carcinomas. Worldwide, many women are still excluded from adequate health care due to their social position and origin. Therefore, immense efforts in research and therapy are still required to counteract the challenges that this disease entails. The special thing about an HPV infection is that it is not only able to trick the immune system in a sophisticated way, but also, through genetic integration into the host genome, to use all the resources available to the host cells to complete the replication cycle of the virus without activating the alarm mechanisms of immune recognition and elimination. The mechanisms utilized by the virus are the metabolic, immune, and hormonal signaling pathways that it manipulates. Since the virus is dependent on replication enzymes of the host cells, it also intervenes in the cell cycle of the differentiating keratinocytes and shifts their terminal differentiation to the uppermost layers of the squamocolumnar transformation zone (TZ) of the cervix. The individual signaling pathways are closely related and equally important not only for the successful replication of the virus but also for the onset of cervical cancer. We will therefore analyze the effects of HPV infection on metabolic signaling, as well as changes in hormonal and immune signaling in the tumor and its microenvironment to understand how each level of signaling interacts to promote tumorigenesis of cervical cancer.

A simple pan-specific RNN model for predicting HLA-II binding peptides

The prediction of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class II binding peptides plays important roles in understanding the mechanism of immune recognition and developing effective epitope-based vaccines. In this work, gated recurrent unit (GRU)-based recurrent neural network (RNN) was successfully employed to establish a pan-specific prediction model of HLA-II-binding peptides by using only the HLA and peptide sequence information. In comparison with the existing pan-specific models of HLA-II-binding peptides, the GRU-based RNN model covered a broad spectrum of HLA-II molecules including 50 HLA-DR, 47 HLA-DQ, and 19 HLA-DP molecules with peptide lengths varying from 8 to 43 mers. The results demonstrated strong discriminant capabilities of the GRU-based RNN model, of which the AUC values were 0.92, 0.88, and 0.88 for the training, validation, and test sets, respectively. Also, the GRU-based model showed state-of-the-art performances in predicting the binding peptides with the length ranging from 8–32 mers, which provides an efficient method for predicting HLA-II-binding peptides of longer lengths in comparison with the available methods. Overall, taking the advantages of the RNN architecture, the established pan-specific GRU model can be used for predicting accurately the HLA-II-binding peptides in a simple and direct manner.

Ex Vivo Expansion and CRISPR-Cas9 Genome Editing of Primary Human Natural Killer Cells.

Natural killer (NK) cells are potent innate immune cells that provide the surveillance and elimination of infected, stressed, and malignant cells. The unique immune recognition mechanisms and functions of NK cells make them an attractive cell type for immunology research and adoptive immunotherapy. However, primary NK cells are challenging to culture ex vivo and lack efficient genetic tools, hindering the research of NK cells and the development of NK cell therapeutics. Here we describe methods for the freeze-thaw process, feeder-free ex vivo expansion, CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing, and functional characterizations of primary human NK cells. Our protocol enables ∼30-fold and ∼2000-fold average expansion rates from 1 × 107 cryopreserved NK cells in 14 and 28 days, respectively. We also detail methods for CRISPR gene knockout and knockin by nucleofection of Cas9 ribonucleoproteins (RNP) and DNA repair templates. Gene knockout by Cas9 RNP nucleofection can be multiplexed to simultaneously target three genes. The CRISPR-edited cells can be cryopreserved and rethawed with high viability for future studies. © 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Thawing of natural killer cells Basic Protocol 2: Ex vivo expansion of natural killer cells Basic Protocol 3: Cryopreservation of expanded natural killer cells Basic Protocol 4: Characterization of natural killer cells: Flow cytometry and surface marker analysis Basic Protocol 5: Cytotoxicity and degranulation assays Basic Protocol 6: Preparation of homology-directed repair templates Basic Protocol 7: Nucleofection of CRISPR-Cas9 ribonucleoproteins Basic Protocol 8: Genotyping of gene-edited natural killer cells Basic Protocol 9: Phenotyping of gene-edited natural killer cells.

A Toll-like receptor identified in Gigantidas platifrons and its potential role in the immune recognition of endosymbiotic methane oxidation bacteria.

Symbiosis with chemosynthetic bacteria is an important ecological strategy for the deep-sea megafaunas including mollusks, tubeworms and crustacean to obtain nutrients in hydrothermal vents and cold seeps. How the megafaunas recognize symbionts and establish the symbiosis has attracted much attention. Bathymodiolinae mussels are endemic species in both hydrothermal vents and cold seeps while the immune recognition mechanism underlying the symbiosis is not well understood due to the nonculturable symbionts. In previous study, a lipopolysaccharide (LPS) pull-down assay was conducted in Gigantidas platifrons to screen the pattern recognition receptors potentially involved in the recognition of symbiotic methane-oxidizing bacteria (MOB). Consequently, a total of 208 proteins including GpTLR13 were identified. Here the molecular structure, expression pattern and immune function of GpTLR13 were further analyzed. It was found that GpTLR13 could bind intensively with the lipid A structure of LPS through surface plasmon resonance analysis. The expression alternations of GpTLR13 transcripts during a 28-day of symbiont-depletion assay were investigated by real-time qPCR. As a result, a robust decrease of GpTLR13 transcripts was observed accompanying with the loss of symbionts, implying its participation in symbiosis. In addition, GpTLR13 transcripts were found expressed exclusively in the bacteriocytes of gills of G. platifrons by in situ hybridization. It was therefore speculated that GpTLR13 may be involved in the immune recognition of symbiotic methane-oxidizing bacteria by specifically recognizing the lipid A structure of LPS. However, the interaction between GpTLR13 and symbiotic MOB was failed to be addressed due to the nonculturable symbionts. Nevertheless, the present result has provided with a promising candidate as well as a new approach for the identification of symbiont-related genes in Bathymodiolinae mussels.

Abstract IA19: Immunotherapy in ovarian cancer: Challenges and novel opportunities

Abstract IA19: Immunotherapy in ovarian cancer: Challenges and novel opportunities

The immune recognition mechanisms in mollucs

The immune recognition mechanisms in mollucs

Nematobacterial Complexes and Insect Hosts: Different Weapons for the Same War.

Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) are widely used as biological control agents against insect pests, the efficacy of these organisms strongly depends on the balance between the parasitic strategies and the immune response of the host. This review summarizes roles and relationships between insect hosts and two well-known EPN species, Steinernema feltiae and Steinernema carpocapsae and outlines the main mechanisms of immune recognition and defense of insects. Analyzing information and findings about these EPNs, it is clear that these two species use shared immunosuppression strategies, mainly mediated by their symbiotic bacteria, but there are differences in both the mechanism of evasion and interference of the two nematodes with the insect host immune pathways. Based on published data, S. feltiae takes advantage of the cross reaction between its body surface and some host functional proteins, to inhibit defensive processes; otherwise, secretion/excretion products from S. carpocapsae seem to be the main nematode components responsible for the host immunosuppression.

Pathogen-Derived Carbohydrate Recognition in Molluscs Immune Defense.

Self-nonself discrimination is a common theme for all of the organisms in different evolutionary branches, which is also the most fundamental step for host immune protection. Plenty of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) with great diversity have been identified from different organisms to recognize various pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) in the last two decades, depicting a complicated scene of host-pathogen interaction. However, the detailed mechanism of the complicate PAMPs–PRRs interactions at the contacting interface between pathogens and hosts is still not well understood. All of the cells are coated by glycosylation complex and thick carbohydrates layer. The different polysaccharides in extracellular matrix of pathogen-host are important for nonself recognition of most organisms. Coincidentally, massive expansion of PRRs, majority of which contain recognition domains of Ig, leucine-rich repeat (LRR), C-type lectin (CTL), C1q and scavenger receptor (SR), have been annotated and identified in invertebrates by screening the available genomic sequence. The phylum Mollusca is one of the largest groups in the animal kingdom with abundant biodiversity providing plenty of solutions about pathogen recognition and immune protection, which might offer a suitable model to figure out the common rules of immune recognition mechanism. The present review summarizes the diverse PRRs and common elements of various PAMPs, especially focusing on the structural and functional characteristics of canonical carbohydrate recognition proteins and some novel proteins functioning in molluscan immune defense system, with the objective to provide new ideas about the immune recognition mechanisms.

Modulatory Role of Surface Coating of Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoworms in Complement Opsonization and Leukocyte Uptake.

Notwithstanding rapid advances of nanotechnology in diagnostic imaging and drug delivery, the engineered nanocarriers still exhibit substantial lack of hemocompatibility. Thus, when injected systemically, nanoparticles are avidly recognized by blood leukocytes and platelets, but the mechanisms of immune recognition are not well understood and strategies to mitigate these phenomena remain underexplored. Using superparamagnetic dextran iron oxide (SPIO) nanoworms (NWs) we demonstrate an efficient and predominantly complement-dependent uptake by mouse lymphocytes, neutrophils and monocytes from normal and tumor bearing mice in vitro. Following intravenous injection into wild type mice, blood leukocytes as well as platelets became magnetically labeled, while the labeling was decreased by 95% in complement C3-deficient mice. Using blood cells from healthy and cancer patient donors, we demonstrated that neutrophils, monocytes, lymphocytes and eosinophils took up SPIO NWs, and the uptake was prevented by EDTA (a general complement inhibitor) and by antiproperdin antibody (an inhibitor of the alternative pathway of the complement system). Cross-linking and hydrogelation of SPIO NWs surface by epichlorohydrin decreased C3 opsonization in mouse serum, and consequently reduced the uptake by mouse leukocytes by more than 70% in vivo. Remarkably, the cross-linked particles did not show a decrease in C3 opsonization in human serum, but showed a significant decrease (over 60%) of the uptake by human leukocytes. The residual uptake of cross-linked nanoparticles was completely blocked by EDTA. These findings demonstrate species differences in complement-mediated nanoparticle recognition and uptake by leukocytes, and further show that human hemocompatibility could be improved by inhibitors of complement alternative pathway and by nanoparticle surface coating. These results provide important insights into the mechanisms of hemocompatibility of nanomedicines.

Immune Therapy in GI Malignancies: A Review.

The balance between tumor-promoting and tumor-suppressing immune responses and the difference between them ultimately determine whether a cancer escapes immune recognition mechanisms. Defining the complex relationships between the tumor itself, the tumor environment, and the immune system has been critical in facilitating the development of successful immunotherapies. This review explores the role of oncogenes in inducing cancer-associated inflammation, the local and systemic factors that lead to immune suppression, and immunotherapy approaches to overcome immune privilege.

Mechanisms of complement activation by dextran-coated superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) nanoworms in mouse versus human serum

BackgroundThe complement system is a key component of innate immunity implicated in the neutralization and clearance of invading pathogens. Dextran coated superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) nanoparticle is a promising magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agent. However, dextran SPIO has been associated with significant number of complement-related side effects in patients and some agents have been discontinued from clinical use (e.g., Feridex™). In order to improve the safety of these materials, the mechanisms of complement activation by dextran-coated SPIO and the differences between mice and humans need to be fully understood.Methods20 kDa dextran coated SPIO nanoworms (SPIO NW) were synthesized using Molday precipitation procedure. In vitro measurements of C3 deposition on SPIO NW using sera genetically deficient for various components of the classical pathway (CP), lectin pathway (LP) or alternative pathway (AP) components were used to study mechanisms of mouse complement activation. In vitro measurements of fluid phase markers of complement activation C4d and Bb and the terminal pathway marker SC5b-C9 in normal and genetically deficient sera were used to study the mechanisms of human complement activation. Mouse data were analyzed by non-paired t-test, human data were analyzed by ANOVA followed by multiple comparisons with Student-Newman-Keuls test.ResultsIn mouse sera, SPIO NW triggered the complement activation via the LP, whereas the AP contributes via the amplification loop. No involvement of the CP was observed. In human sera the LP together with the direct enhancement of the AP turnover was responsible for the complement activation. In two samples out of six healthy donors there was also a binding of anti-dextran antibodies and C1q, suggesting activation via the CP, but that did not affect the total level of C3 deposition on the particles.ConclusionsThere were important differences and similarities in the complement activation by SPIO NW in mouse versus human sera. Understanding the mechanisms of immune recognition of nanoparticles in mouse and human systems has important preclinical and clinical implications and could help design more efficient and safe nano-formulations.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12989-014-0064-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Distinct functional programs in fetal T and myeloid lineages.

Pregnancy poses a challenge to normal mechanisms of immune recognition and rejection: both the mother and her fetus are exposed to allogeneic cells from one to the other. In the case of the mother, these cells are fetal cells carrying paternal antigens; in the case of the fetus, they are maternal cells expressing non-inherited maternal alloantigens (1, 2). Since adaptive immune recognition of these alloantigens could result in mutual rejection and an end to the pregnancy, there are extensive mechanisms in place to inhibit such responses, including poor antigen presentation (3), non-canonical MHC expression, and unique placental and decidual immunomodulatory cell populations (4). The reader is referred to several excellent reviews on this subject (4–7). Given the inherent difficulties attending experiments in humans, studies of the fetal–maternal interface have focused primarily on inbred strains of laboratory mice. There are, however, major differences between the biology of immune system development of such mice and that found in humans, making it challenging to relate findings in one species to the other. In mice, by example, mature αβ T cells colonize peripheral lymphoid organs during very late gestation and do not fully populate the periphery until after birth (8). By contrast, mature αβ T cells can be found in the periphery of the human fetus as early as 10–12 gestational weeks (5, 9). Thus, early hypotheses posited that in utero tolerance was maintained by a passive or inert fetal immune system (similar to that found in the mouse) (Figure ​(Figure1A).1A). However, current research suggests that there exist distinct fetal programs both in the T and myeloid compartments that contribute to the unique environment in utero, both in mice and in humans (Figures ​(Figures11B,C). Figure 1 Models of human immune development. Throughout different stages of development, fetal T and myeloid cells, as compared to their adult counterparts, specifically populate a subset of tissues including the epithelium (DETC, non-DETC cells, and Langerhans ... Fetal T Cell Development and Function Early work in quail chick embryos demonstrated that thymic T cell development occurs in sequential waves, each of which can be identified by differential stem cell colonization of thymic tissue and by unique TCRs (10). These waves appear to be developmentally regulated as they wax and wane according to embryonic gestational age (10), and further work in mice has identified discrete TCR (γδ) utilization during fetal and neonatal development as compared to the adult TCR (αβ) (11–15). Fetal-derived γδ T cells have limited TCR diversity, suggesting a distinct and limited antigen recognition repertoire (12). Furthermore, these cells appear to localize to specific tissues, including the epithelium (16) and the intestine (17). This localization and restricted TCR repertoire suggest that these fetal-derived cells may play a unique role in barrier sites and, as they are developmentally restricted, may be important for promoting tolerance to skin and gut microbiota in early life. Because of their distinct TCR repertoire and anatomical location, multiple fetal-derived functional populations have been characterized in mice, including dendritic epidermal T cells (DETCs) and non-DETC γδ T cell populations found in the dermis (18, 19). DETCs are the first T cells and seed the epidermis early in development (20). These cells have been implicated in the inhibition of inflammatory skin conditions (21), protection against cutaneous malignancies (22, 23), and wound repair (24, 25). Non-DETC γδ T cell populations have been shown to be the primary producers of IL-17 (18, 19) in the skin and may play a role in response to infection. These functions may be indicative of a fetal-specific program, ontologically geared toward appropriate development and maintenance of in utero tolerance. Work in humans has demonstrated that while fetal T cells are capable of recognizing and responding to alloantigen in utero (1), these cells preferentially differentiate into T regulatory (Treg) cells, capable of suppressing immune responses (1, 26). Furthermore, these studies show that the fetal T cells are derived from a fetal hematopoietic stem/progenitor cell (HSPC) in the fetal liver and fetal bone marrow, which gives rise to downstream progeny that are distinct from those generated by adult bone marrow-resident HSPC. Taken together, these data suggest that there are developmentally restricted windows of T cell development in which fetal T cells, functionally distinct from their adult counterparts, arise from discrete HSPC, and seed specific anatomical locations (Figure ​(Figure11B,C).

Two novel Toll genes (EsToll1 and EsToll2) from Eriocheir sinensis are differentially induced by lipopolysaccharide, peptidoglycan and zymosan

Tolls/Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play an essential role in initiating innate immune responses against pathogens and are found throughout the insect kingdom but have not yet been reported in the crustacean, Eriocheir sinensis. For this purpose, we cloned two novel Toll genes from E. sinensis, EsToll1 and EsToll2. The full-length cDNA of EsToll1 was 3963 bp with a 3042-bp open reading frame (ORF) encoding a 1013-amino acid protein. The extracellular domain of this protein contains 17 leucine-rich repeats (LRRs) and a 139-residue cytoplasmic Toll/interleukin-1 receptor (TIR) domain. The cDNA full-length of EsToll2 was 4419 bp with a 2667-bp ORF encoding an 888-amino acid protein with an extracellular domain containing 10 LRRs and a 139-residue cytoplasmic TIR domain. By phylogenetic analysis, EsToll1 and EsToll2 clustered into one group together with Tolls from other crustaceans. Quantitative RT-PCR analysis demonstrated that a) both EsToll1 and EsToll2 were constitutively expressed in all tested crab tissues; b) EsToll1 and EsToll2 were differentially induced after injection of lipopolysaccharides (LPS), peptidoglycan (PG) or zymosan (GLU). Importantly, EsToll2 expression was significantly upregulated at almost all time intervals post-challenge with LPS, PG and GLU. Our study indicated that EsToll1 and EsToll2 are differentially inducibility in response to various PAMPs, suggesting their involvement in a specific innate immune recognition mechanism in E. sinensis.

Peptide Modulation of Class I Major Histocompatibility Complex Protein Molecular Flexibility and the Implications for Immune Recognition*

T cells use the αβ T cell receptor (TCR) to recognize antigenic peptides presented by class I major histocompatibility complex proteins (pMHCs) on the surfaces of antigen-presenting cells. Flexibility in both TCRs and peptides plays an important role in antigen recognition and discrimination. Less clear is the role of flexibility in the MHC protein; although recent observations have indicated that mobility in the MHC can impact TCR recognition in a peptide-dependent fashion, the extent of this behavior is unknown. Here, using hydrogen/deuterium exchange, fluorescence anisotropy, and structural analyses, we show that the flexibility of the peptide binding groove of the class I MHC protein HLA-A*0201 varies significantly with different peptides. The variations extend throughout the binding groove, impacting regions contacted by TCRs as well as other activating and inhibitory receptors of the immune system. Our results are consistent with statistical mechanical models of protein structure and dynamics, in which the binding of different peptides alters the populations and exchange kinetics of substates in the MHC conformational ensemble. Altered MHC flexibility will influence receptor engagement, impacting conformational adaptations, entropic penalties associated with receptor recognition, and the populations of binding-competent states. Our results highlight a previously unrecognized aspect of the "altered self" mechanism of immune recognition and have implications for specificity, cross-reactivity, and antigenicity in cellular immunity.