Measures Of Subjective Social Status Research Articles

Measurement invariance of subjective social status: The issue of single-item questions in social stratification research

Measures of objective and subjective social status are commonly used in social stratification research. While objective measures have been extensively examined for cross-national comparability, subjective indicators have received less attention. This study aims to address this research gap by investigating the measurement invariance of the three most commonly used single-item measures of subjective social status across many countries. Using a Bayesian approximation approach, we analysed data from three waves of the International Social Survey Programme conducted between 1999 and 2019. The analyses showed that our composite measure is a relatively reliable and stable construct when compared internationally. However, some single-item measures were not invariant across countries or survey rounds, suggesting that the average of a given single measure of subjective status or the relationship between it and other variables should not be compared across countries. Finally, the study showed that a subjective status item with a 10-step numerical ladder seems to be more appropriate for cross-country comparisons, showing low variation across countries. To improve the validity of future research, we recommend that at least three questions measuring subjective social status be included in international questionnaires and that subjective status be used as a latent construct whenever possible and appropriate.

Do college students with higher attachment anxiety or avoidance tend to have lower subjective social status? Evidence from a cross‐sectional and a longitudinal study

AbstractThe present study examined the relationship between adult attachment and subjective social status (SSS) in college students through a cross‐sectional survey (Study 1) and a longitudinal study (Study 2). In Study 1, 1300 college students were recruited via research flyers and online campus advertisements. They completed measures of adult attachment and SSS. The results showed that higher attachment anxiety and avoidance negatively predicted SSS. In Study 2, 958 freshmen students were recruited via the Freshmen Entrance Ceremony and underwent assessment four times (T1, T2, T3, and T4) at monthly intervals. The latent growth model results showed a significant decline in SSS during the first month of campus life, followed by a slow increase over the subsequent 2 months. While attachment avoidance did not predict a decline in SSS, attachment anxiety positively predicted the rate of decline in SSS, which meant that the higher the attachment anxiety was, the slower the rate of decline in SSS. Both studies indicated that both dimensions of attachment influence freshmen's SSS and that only attachment anxiety plays a role in the dynamics of SSS.

Examining individual social status using the MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status: Findings from the Born in Bradford study

Subjective social status is how a person perceives their social class relative to other people and has frequently been associated with people's health and well-being. A frequently used measure of subjective social status is the MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status that depicts social status as a 10 rung ladder, asking individuals to rank themselves on this ladder relative to other people, either in their local neighbourhood or wider society. The Born in Bradford's Better Start birth cohort study aims to understand the lives, relationships, wellbeing, and social and economic circumstances of pregnant women and their children in three inner city areas of Bradford, UK. Pregnant mothers were asked to report their subjective social status, using the MacArthur subjective social status scales, comparing themselves to other people in their local neighbourhood and in England as a whole. This paper explores the characteristics of the women who gave responses, examines associations between the MacArthur subjective social status measures and other subjective and objective measures and looks specifically at the characteristics of women who reported either very low or very high subjective social status. On average, women reported that they had a higher social status compared to others within their local neighbourhood (mean ladder rung = 6) and, although participants were from areas of Bradford with very high levels of deprivation, 23% placed themselves on the top three rungs, 8–10. Respondents reported that they had an average social status when comparing themselves to people in all of England (mean ladder rung = 5) and 13% placed themselves on the top rungs 8–10. These findings raise important questions about the interpretation of the MacArthur scale of subjective social status.

Subjective social status and nocturnal blood pressure dipping

ObjectiveLow social status has been linked to cardiovascular disease. Subjective social status (SSS), which represents one's perceived position in a social hierarchy, has been suggested to predict health outcomes beyond objective measures of socioeconomic status. The present study examined if lower SSS is related to reduced nocturnal blood pressure (BP) dipping, a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. MethodsIn this cross-sectional study, a community sample of 53 healthy adults underwent 24-h ambulatory BP monitoring. All participants provided information on SSS and objective measures of socioeconomic status (i.e., education, occupation, and income). SSS was measured in comparison to others in the country (national SSS) as well as in comparison to one's social environment (local SSS) using the German versions of the MacArthur Scales. ResultsAnalyses found that participants with low local SSS exhibited attenuated nocturnal diastolic blood pressure dipping (β = 0.29, 95% CI [0.01, 0.57], p = .043) and mean arterial pressure dipping (β = 0.29, 95% CI [0.01, 0.57], p = .041). These associations remained significant after adjusting for objective socioeconomic status. No significant associations between national SSS and cardiovascular measures were observed. ConclusionIn conclusion, one's perceived social position in the social environment (i.e., local SSS) is associated with nocturnal BP dipping. Therefore, local SSS may be an important psychosocial factor linking social inequality and cardiovascular health.

Subjective social status and cardiometabolic risk markers in young adults

BackgroundLow subjective social status (SSS), the perceived status in the social hierarchy, is associated with cardiometabolic risk in middle-aged and older adults. However, most studies are cross-sectional and very little is known about the association in adolescence and young adulthood. The aims of this study were; a) to prospectively investigate the association between SSS at ages 15 and 28 and cardiometabolic risk at age 28–30 and b) to examine if such an association was independent of smoking, physical activity and objective measures of social position. MethodsThe study used questionnaire information at ages 15 and 28 from the West Jutland Cohort Study (N = 3681), health measurements from a sub-sample of the cohort (N = 264, age 28–30, 50% women) and information from population-based national registers. The independent variable was a measure of SSS evaluated by a 10-rung ladder scale and dichotomized at the 25th percentile of data from the cohort study population. The outcome measure was a composite score of cardiometabolic risk including measures of lipids, inflammation, blood pressure and glucose-metabolism. Co-variates included smoking, physical activity, childhood and adulthood socioeconomic position. Sex-stratified linear regression analyses were performed to evaluate the associations between SSS and cardiometabolic risk. ResultsIn both sexes, low SSS at age 28, but not at age 15, was significantly associated with increased cardiometabolic risk at age 28–30. Neither smoking, physical activity, childhood or adulthood objective socioeconomic position fully explained the associations. ConclusionIn young adulthood, SSS was inversely related to cardiometabolic risk after accounting for smoking, physical activity and objective measures of socioeconomic position. These findings suggest that SSS could play a role in the social disparities in cardiometabolic risk in addition to traditional measures of socioeconomic position.

Socioeconomic position over the life-course and subjective social status in relation to nutritional status and mental health among Guatemalan adults

ObjectiveWe study how life course objective socioeconomic position (SEP) predicts subjective social status (SSS) and the extent to which SSS mediates the association of objective SEP with nutritional status and mental health outcomes. MethodsWe use data from participants of the INCAP Longitudinal Study 1969–2018 (n = 1258) from Guatemala. We use the MacArthur ladder for two measures of SSS - perceived community respect and perceived economic status. We estimate the association of SSS with health outcomes after adjusting for early life characteristics and life course objective SEP (wealth, schooling, employment) using linear regression. We use path analysis to study the extent of mediation by SSS on the health outcomes of body mass index (BMI; kg/m2), psychological distress (using the WHO Self-Reported Questionnaire; SRQ-20) and happiness, using the Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS). ResultsMedian participant rating was 5 [IQR: 3–8] for the perceived community respect and 3 [IQR: 1–5] for the perceived economic status, with no differences by sex. Objective SEP in early life and adulthood were predictive of both measures of SSS in middle adulthood as well as health outcomes (BMI, SRQ-20 and SHS). Perceived community respect (z-scores; 1 z = 3.1 units) was positively associated with happiness (0.13, 95 % CI: 0.07, 0.19). Perceived economic status (z-scores; 1 z = 2.3 units) was inversely associated with psychological distress (−0.28, 95 % CI: −0.47, −0.09). Neither measure of SSS was associated with BMI. Neither perceived community respect nor perceived economic status attenuated associations of objective SEP with health outcomes on inclusion as a mediator. ConclusionsSubjective social status was independently associated with happiness and psychological distress in middle adulthood after adjusting for objective SEP. Moreover, association of objective SEP with health was not mediated by SSS, suggesting potentially independent pathways.

Evaluating the Performance of Five Asset-based Wealth Indices in Predicting Socioeconomic Position in Rural Bangladesh

Social scientists have developed numerous asset-based wealth indices to assess and target socioeconomic inequalities globally. However, there are no systematic studies of the relative performance of these different measures as proxies for socioeconomic position. In this study, we compare how five asset-based wealth indices—the International Wealth Index (IWI), the Standard of Living portion of the Multi-Dimensional Poverty Index (MPI-SL), the Poverty Probability Index (PPI), the Absolute Wealth Estimate (AWE), and the DHS Wealth Index (DHS)—predict benchmarks of socioeconomic position across 11 communities in rural Bangladesh. All indices were highly correlated. The IWI best explained variation in individual and community ranking of economic well-being, while the PPI best explained variation both between and within communities for total household wealth and a general measure of subjective social status.

Examining the relation between the subjective and objective social status with health reported needs and health-seeking behaviour in Dande, Angola

BackgroundAssessing subjective social status (SSS) may be easily accommodated in the context of a Health and Demographic Surveillance System (HDSS). To our knowledge, no prior studies have examined the association of SSS and health in Angola. Subjective socioeconomic measures may provide a rapid assessment of a relevant social status construct, important for studying health inequalities. In this study, we addressed social determinants of health by examining the relationship between the subjective and objective social status, reported health and healthcare-seeking behaviour.MethodsThis research results from a cross-sectional study performed during 2015 in the Dande HDSS, in Angola. We tested the application of the MacArthur scale as a measure of SSS in a developing setting, in a sample of 12,246 households. First, we investigated its relation to objective socioeconomic indicators, and then we explored how subjective and objective social status associate with health reported needs and health-seeking behaviour of the surveyed population.Chi-square, ANOVA tests, and Receiver Operating Characteristics (ROC) Curves analysis were computed for testing relationships between subjective status ladder quartiles, sociodemographic and household characteristics. Logistic regression was used to examine the influence of subjective perception of status in self-reported health and health-seeking behaviour.ResultsOur findings suggest that the SSS follows a gradient distribution obtained with more objective socioeconomic indicators. Additionally, we found that subjective perception of status influence health needs reporting and health-seeking behaviour and its significant effect remained after controlling for the objective socioeconomic markers. Individuals standing in the second quartile of the social ladder have more odds of reporting illness and those in the highest quartiles of the ladder were twice more likely (OR = 2.23, 95% CI = 1.52–3.26) to seek help from formal health services than those at the bottom of the ladder.ConclusionsThe MacArthur Scale is a valuable tool to measure SSS in the Dande HDSS, relevant for studying socioeconomic disparities and health inequalities. It is also an easier alternative to traditional measures such as income, usually difficult to measure in developing settings. The social perception of status should be considered as a complement with objective indicators when exploring social determinants of health.

Measuring subjective social status in children of diverse societies

Subjective Social Status (SSS) is a robust predictor of psychological and physiological outcomes, frequently measured as self-reported placement on the MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status. Despite its importance, however, there are still open questions regarding how early into ontogeny SSS can be measured, and how well SSS measures can be extended to non-Western and small-scale populations. Here, we investigate the internal consistency of responses to the MacArthur ladder across four cultures by comparing responses to more explicit social comparison questions. We conduct these comparisons among children and adolescents, ages 4 to 18, in India, the United States, and Argentina, in addition to those in two indigenous communities of the Ecuadorean Amazon marked by differing degrees of market integration (total N = 363). We find that responses are consistent in all populations, except for the more remote forager-horticulturalist Ecuadorian community. We also find that, consistent with findings among American adolescents, SSS declines with age. We then assess the test-retest reliability of the MacArthur Scale across two time-points: a subset of Indian participants (N = 43) within one week, and a larger, second sample of Indian participants after one year (N = 665). We find that responses are highly correlated within one week (ρ = 0.47), and moderately correlated after one year (ρ = 0.32). These results suggest that responses to the MacArthur ladder are internally consistent and reliable among children across a range of diverse populations, though care must be taken in utilizing these measures among children of non-industrial, small-scale societies.

Low childhood subjective social status and telomere length in adulthood: The role of attachment orientations.

Low subjective social status (SSS) in childhood places one at greater risk of a number of health problems in adulthood. Theoretical and empirical evidence indicates that exposure to supportive parenting may buffer the negative effects of low childhood SSS on adult health. Given the importance of supportive caregivers and close others for the development of attachment orientations throughout the lifespan, attachment theory may be important for understanding why some individuals are resilient to the negative effects of low childhood SSS on adult health while others are not. We examined if attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance altered the association between childhood subjective social status (SSS) and length of telomeres in white blood cells in adulthood. Shorter telomere length is associated with increased risk of age-related diseases including cancer, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Participants (N = 128) completed self-report measures of childhood SSS and attachment orientations, as well as a blood draw. We found that among those with low childhood SSS, low attachment anxiety was associated with longer telomere length in white blood cells in comparison to high attachment anxiety controlling for participant age, sex, race, body mass index, and adult SSS. Among those with high childhood SSS, low attachment anxiety was associated with a slight decrease in telomere length. Attachment avoidance was unrelated to length of telomeres. Such findings provide further evidence for the role that close relationships may have on buffering SSS related health disparities.

Comparison group matters for chronic stress effects of subjective social status.

Inconsistent associations between health and measures of subjective social status compared to one's community suggest that how people define community may matter. This study broke down community into status among neighborhood and friends/family to assess the impact of each domain on chronic stress in individuals differing in socioeconomic status (18 employed and 18 unemployed individuals). The findings suggest that for ratings of subjective social status, the social and physical proximity of the reference group matters. Specifically, neighborhood status was affected by unemployment, while friends/family status was associated with perceived stress, emphasizing the importance of the comparison group in assessing subjective status.

Change in subjective social status following HIV diagnosis and associated effects on mental and physical health among HIV-positive gay men in Australia

Objective: This study investigates the impact of HIV diagnosis on subjective social status and if changes are linked to health outcomes.Design: Two measures of subjective social status, socio-economic and standing in the community were examined in 342 Australian HIV-positive gay men in 2014. Participants recalled ratings at diagnosis were compared with current ratings.Main outcome measures: Self-reported mental (psychological distress, self-esteem, positive mental health and satisfaction with life) and physical health (self-rated health, CD4 count, viral load).Results: Half of the participants reported improvements in subjective socio-economic status (59%) or standing in the community (52%) since diagnosis, yet one quarter reported socio-economic status (25%) or standing in the community had decreased (23%). Increases in either measure of subjective social status were linked to higher self-esteem, positive mental health, satisfaction with life and better self-rated health. Decreases in subjective social status, however, were strongly linked to poorer outcomes on all mental health measures. Decreases in standing in the community were also associated with poorer physical self-rated health.Conclusion: Most participants reported their subjective social status were the same or better since diagnosis. Changes in subjective social status following diagnosis were strongly linked to mental health outcomes. Those who reported a decrease in subjective social status were particularly vulnerable to mental health problems.

A Longitudinal Study of the Relations Among University Students' Subjective Social Status, Social Contact with University Friends, and Mental Health and Well-Being

Prior research has found that the higher one's perceived status in society, the better one's mental health and well-being. The present research used a longitudinal design to investigate whether social contact with friends mediated this relation between subjective social status and mental health and well-being among firstyear undergraduate students at an Australian university (Wave 1 N = 749, Wave 2 N = 314). Participants completed an online survey that included measures of subjective social status, social contact with university friends during the past week, and mental health and well-being during the past week. Multiple regression analyses found that subjective social status positively predicted amount of social contact with university friends, and that both of these variables positively predicted subsequent mental health and well-being. Furthermore, bootstrapped mediation tests found that social contact with university friends acted as a significant mediator of the relations between social status and me...

Development of the Classism Attitudinal Profile (CAP).

Despite increasing interest in social class issues within psychology, there are a limited number of theoretically rooted instruments to measure subjective social class, particularly related to classism. The purpose of this project was to create a brief, psychometrically sound, and theoretically grounded instrument, called the Classism Attitudinal Profile (CAP), designed to measure 2 aspects of classism (downward and upward) defined in Liu's (2011) Social Class World View Model Revised (SCWM-R). Data from 2 independent samples (n = 608, n = 199) provided evidence in support of the consistency (alpha and test-retest coefficients), anticipated factor structure, and convergent/discriminant validity of CAP subscale scores. Downward and upward classism scores were only modestly correlated with each other and differentially correlated with other measures, thereby demonstrating that CAP subscales measure distinct constructs rather than opposite ends of the same continuum. Validity of CAP scores was further supported by logically consistent patterns of relationships with measures of subjective social status, materialistic values, Protestant work ethic, life satisfaction, racism, sexism, and key demographic variables. (PsycINFO Database Record

The Potential Explanatory Role of Perceived Stress in Associations Between Subjective Social Status and Health-Related Quality of Life Among Homeless Smokers.

Homeless individuals smoke at high rates relative to the general population and are at heightened risk of tobacco-related illnesses and poor health-related quality of life (HRQoL). Homeless smokers also report low subjective social status (SSS) or perceived social standing relative to others. SSS may contribute to poor HRQoL, potentially through perceived stress. The current study examined the role of perceived stress in the association of SSS and HRQoL among 227 (70.9% male, Mage = 43.2) homeless smokers. Participants completed self-report measures of SSS, perceived stress, and HRQoL. Perceived stress partially explained the relation between SSS (United States and Community) and HRQoL in covariate-adjusted analyses. Results suggested that perceived stress is a pathway through which SSS contributes to HRQoL among homeless smokers. Findings broaden current understanding of the impact of social disadvantage and perceived stress on HRQoL among homeless smokers.

Sleep and the Social Matrix: Determinants of Health Status Beyond Objective Social Status

AimThe purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between subjective social status (SSS) and objective socioeconomic status (SES) on sleep status (sleep duration and daytime sleepiness).MethodThe study sample included 73 primary care patients from a free medical clinic in which low-income individuals are primarily treated. Subjective social status was measured using the MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status which uses a pictorial format (social ladder) in order to assess current social status. Socioeconomic status was measured by assessing highest level of education and current income level.ResultsCommunity SSS did not significantly predict sleep duration or daytime sleepiness. Additional regression analyses were conducted and it was found that an overall model of U.S. SSS and community SSS significantly predicted perceived stress. Community SSS was found to be significantly associated with perceived stress. Regression results also indicated that an overall model of U.S. SSS and community SSS significantly predicted perceived health status.ConclusionIt may be beneficial for clinicians working with low-income primary care populations to include measures of SSS in addition to the traditional measures of SES for multidimensional patient care.

Subjective social status and intergroup attitudes among ethnic majority and minority children in Portugal

A measure of subjective social status (SSS) was examined among high (White), and low (Black and Roma) ethnic status children in Portugal within a developmental design including 6-8-year-old and 9-12-year-old children. White children favoured their in-group over the Black and Roma out-groups on the SSS measure, social preferences and positive as well as negative trait attributions. Generally, the Black and Roma showed equal SSS, preferences and trait attribution for their in-group and the high status White out-group, but not the other low-status out-group. With age White children generally demonstrated higher SSS for Black and Roma, preferred them more and attributed more positive traits. For low-status groups, an age effect was found only for Black children who preferred the Roma more with age and attributed more positive traits. Changes on preferences and trait attribution depending on age-group were mediated by SSS. It is concluded that minority group's SSS does not parallel the objective status hierarchy but, rather, is a dynamic reorganisation of group's relative positions serving strategies to cope with their minority condition.

Subjective Social Status: Construct Validity and Associations with Psychosocial Vulnerability and Self-Rated Health

Subjective social status (SSS) predicts health outcomes independently of traditional, objective indicators of socioeconomic status (SES). However, the potential confounding and mediating effects of negative affect and similar psychosocial risk and resilience factors have not been adequately addressed through formal studies of convergent and discriminant validity of SSS measures. The current study provides such a test of construct validity and subsequently examines whether psychosocial factors mediate the relationship between SSS and self-rated health. We examined the convergent and discriminant validity of the MacArthur scales of SSS relative to measures of psychosocial risk and resilience (i.e., neuroticism, depressive symptoms, optimism, and marital quality) as well as SES (i.e., income) in 300 middle-aged and older married US couples. We also tested a factor of psychosocial vulnerability as a mediator of the relationship between SSS and self-rated health. Findings indicated clear convergent and discriminant validity of the MacArthur scales. Further, controlling age and income, both the US and community measures of SSS predicted psychosocial factors for men, however, only the community measure was independently predictive for women. Psychosocial vulnerability significantly mediated the pathway between SSS and self-rated health for men and women after controlling age and income. These results provide strong support for the construct validity of the MacArthur scales and provide additional evidence of the role of psychosocial risk and resilience factors as mediators of the effects of SSS on health.

Abstract B20: Examining measures of socioeconomic status for cancer disparities research

Abstract Background: Recent advances in cancer disparities research highlight the importance of understanding the relationship between race, SES, and cancer outcomes. However, SES is often difficult to operationalize in nuanced ways in health-related studies. This paper examines the utility of two emerging measures of subjective social status adapted from the MacArthur Foundation Research Network on Socioeconomic Status and Health Socio-demographic questionnaire. I also analyze responses of parents within the same family, and examine discrepancies in parental reports of SES. Method: Data come from an IRB-approved mixed-methods study of parents of pediatric cancer patients. Patients were sampled through a Pediatric Oncology clinic at an NCI-designated Comprehensive Cancer Center in the Northeast US. For two-parent families we attempted to recruit both parents to the study. Data come from the survey component of the study, and analyses focus on respondents’ responses to income, education, and subjective social status measures. The first subjective social status measure asks participants to place themselves on a ladder that represents the US social hierarchy, and the second asks respondents to place themselves on a ladder that represents their self-defined community (Singh-Manoux et al. 2003; Singh-Manoux et al. 2005). Findings: The final sample consisted of 74 parents of pediatric cancer patients. Seventy-eight percent of the sample was White, and 22% was Black. As expected, I find significant associations between respondent income and their subjective social status. The poorest respondents were significantly more likely to place themselves on the bottom third of both the US and community ladders, while respondents who made more than $50,000 annually were more likely to put themselves in the top of both ladders (US ladder: x2 = 34.646, p <.001; Community ladder x2 = 16.356, p<.050). Education was significantly associated with respondents’ responses to the US ladder (x2 = 16.023, p <.010), but not the community ladder. Black respondents were significantly more likely than White respondents to place themselves in the bottom third of the US ladder (x2 = 12.536, p < .010) but there was no significant difference between White and Black respondents’ responses to the community ladder. Twenty-five of the families in the sample were represented by two parents, which allowed examination of discrepancies in parental reporting of income and both measures of subjective social status. Parents with lower household income were significantly more likely to have discrepancies between parents in responding to the community ladder (x2 = 26.449 p< .010), but not the US ladder. Black respondents were significantly more likely to have discrepancies between parental reports of household income (x2 = 11.431 p< .010), and responses to the community ladder (x2 = 22.546 p< .001), than white respondents. There were no significant associations between respondent income or education and parental discrepancies in responses to items measuring total household income, or the US ladder. Conclusions: Findings have important implications for measurement and design of future cancer disparities research. The associations between income, education and the US ladder were in the expected directions. For this sample, the US ladder seems to be capturing a traditional conception of class. Parents in two-parent families were fairly consistent in their responses to the US ladder, suggesting reliability of the measure. The parents’ responses to the community ladder were less predictable, and suggest that this measure may be capturing a distinct dimension of SES beyond acting as a proxy for income or education. Results suggest that the MacArthur US ladder item may be an appropriate measure used to triangulate respondent SES, or in place of income or education items in studies where researchers want to use alternate SES measures. Citation Information: Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2011;20(10 Suppl):B20.

An Interpersonal Analysis of Subjective Social Status and Psychosocial Risk

Subjective social status (SSS) predicts health independently of traditional measures of socio-economic status (SES; Adler et al., 2008; Cohen et al., 2008). Although interpersonal variables are known to be related to both SES and health (Gallo, Smith, & Cox, 2006) and might contribute to their association, little research has examined the association of interpersonal variables with SSS. The present study of 300 middle-aged and older married couples found that individuals who rated themselves high on measures of SSS tended to display a warm and dominant interpersonal style. Further analyses revealed that partner reported warmth and dominance partially mediated the association of SSS with both marital satisfaction and depressive symptoms after controlling neuroticism. Results suggest that interpersonal theory provides a useful framework for the study of SSS and health, and that interpersonal processes may account for a significant portion of the relationship between SSS and health-relevant psychosocial risk...