Personal Space Measures Research Articles

Responses to dominance challenge are a function of psychopathy level: A multimethod study.

This study assesses the relationship between psychopathy and dominance, both as a trait level and in 2 interpersonal contexts. Following the interpersonal circumplex model, we expected that interacting with a dominant interviewer would reduce dominance displays by low psychopathy participants (interpersonal complementarity) but might increase such displays in those with higher psychopathy (anticomplementarity). Psychopathic traits and dominance were assessed in a community sample (N = 91) using multiple dominance indicators: self-reported overall dominance level, job preference, dominance displays observed during identical interviews with a subordinate and dominant interviewer, and baseline and postinterview measures of personal space and testosterone level. Psychopathic traits were positively related to dominance on both trait measures and in the interviews. As a trait, higher self-reported psychopathy scores were associated with higher levels of self-reported dominance and preference for supervisory job positions. Higher Factor 1 psychopathy scores were associated with increased dominance display in interaction with the dominant interviewer. Higher Factor 2 scores were associated with allowing the dominant interviewer to approach more closely (reduced physical distancing). Psychopathy was partly related to a delayed increase in testosterone levels after interaction. Psychopathic traits may include a general tendency to dominate, a tendency which increases when interacting with a dominant other. The emotional/interpersonal psychopathy factor is specifically related to increased dominance displays when interacting with a dominant individual, while the behavioral factor of psychopathy is related to reduced physical distancing of a dominant partner. At higher psychopathy levels the general rule of dominant-subordinate reciprocity during social interaction is reversed. (PsycINFO Database Record

Comparison of Personal Space as a Function of Grade and Sex of Interacting Pairs of Children

Using Nigerian children in Grades 2 and 6 as subjects, separately 4 boys and 4 girls approached 8 boys on two occasions. This was repeated with 8 girls being approached, resulting in personal space measures for 8 pairs of boys, 8 girl-boy pairs, 8 pairs of girls and 8 boy-girl pairs, for each grade. Significantly greater personal space characterized children in Grade 2 and all children when pairs were of the opposite sex.

Effects of Ambient Temperature and Seating Arrangement on Personal and Environmental Evaluations

Summary Forty male and 40 female undergraduates participating in same-sex pairs were seated either facing each other or adjacent to each other in a room maintained at either 73°F (23°C) or 97°F (36°). The warmer room led to more negative affect and to marginally more negative evaluations of the environment. Moreover, males and females evaluated the environment more favorably when seated adjacent to each other than when across from each other. None of the independent variables influenced interpersonal attraction, performance on a symbol cancellation task, nor responses to two self-report measures of personal space.

Personal Space Measurement: A Validational Comparison

The study was designed to intercorrelate three classes of personal space measures: a naturalistic measure in which persons did not know personal space was being measured; two role-played measures in which participants approached or were approached by a stimulus person; and the Comfortable Interpersonal Distance Scale (CID), a series of four paper and pencil measures of personal space. Results showed significant correlations within each class of measurement but negligible correlations between classes. The lack of overlap in assessment techniques calls into question the validity of measures other than those obtained naturalistically.

Convergent validity of personal space measures: Consistent results with low intercorrelations

Low correlations among personal space measures have been used as evidence against their convergent validity. This argument is analyzed and found limited to personality trait assumptions. Convergent validity more generally concerns whether findings from one measure generalize to other measures. In the present study 91 subjects completed three measures (a disguised interaction distance, figure placement distances, and the Comfortable Interpersonal Distance Scale) under different conditions of subject sex, sex of the other person, and acquaintance with the other person. The three measures showed an average intercorrelation ofr = .034, but consistent significant effects of acquaintance. These findings demonstrate that convergence of findings may be obtained even when measures are not highly correlated. The search for convergent validity should concentrate on the generalizability of findings rather than correlations among measures.

Personal space in nursery school children.

Personal space in nursery school children was examined by two methods. In one, unobtrusive observations of actual interpersonal distance choices in four different social situations were made. In the other, the same children chose interpersonal distances in four similar social situations represented symbolically by drawings. The results demonstrate that 4-year-old children already show regular variations in personal space based on acquaintance (Acquain- tances closer than Strangers), sex (Boys greater than Girls), and social context (Informal greater than Formal). Three interactions are also significant. Projective and naturalistic observation measurement methods produced similar results, contrary to the conclusions of recent reviews. Conceptually, however, there may be two types of personal space, analogous to Murray's distinction between alpha and beta press. The oft-studied phenomenon of interpersonal distance or personal space developed from observations b y naturalists o f regular inter-individual spacing in bird and animal species (e.g. Hediger, 1950). The possible application of the concept to humans was suggested by Hall (1959) and at about the same time empirical work began (e.g. Sommer, 1959). Reflecting its origins, personal space is usually measured as a chosen interpersonal distance. This paper bears on two implications of this: measurement by direct observation vs. measurement by' 'projective methods, and some of the factors which influence the choice of interpersonal distance - sex, degree of acquaintance, and formality of the social context. Particularly since Guardo's (1969) work, questions have naturally arisen about the developmental aspects of personal space. Adults possess a richer articulation of interpersonal distancing, but several studies (e.g. Bass & Weinstein, 1971) have shown that soon after children enter school they make reliable distinctions in interpersonal distance based on sex, acquain- tance, and context. Distancing in children is related to age (Meisels & Guardo, 1969; Tennis & & Dabbs, 1975), race (Koslin, Koslin, Pargament, & Bird, 1971) and apparently even somatotype of the other child (Lerner, Karabenick, & Meisels, 1975). All these studies used simulation measures of personal space. Few studies of pre-school children have been undertaken, although Moreno (1953) claimed that space is used to represent social relations by

Effects of Attitude, Sex, and Approach on Nonverbal, Verbal and Projective Measures of Personal Space

This study investigated the effects of attitude, sex of subject, sex of invader, plane of approach, and approach trial on personal space using nonverbal, verbal, and projective measures. 10 male and 10 female subjects were approached from the front and side by a male and female invader who projected one of three attitudes: a positive, affable manner; a neutral, impartial manner; or a negative hostile manner. The factorial analysis indicated effects of sex of invader, plane of approach, and several interactions of these factors with sex of subject. These results were interpreted in terms of societal norms and potential physical and psychological threat. The observed effects of attitude were hypothesized to be a function of the different socialization processes for males and females.

Effects of procedural variations in measuring interpersonal distance by means of representational space.

To determine whether two commonly employed variations in the administration of personal space measures would significantly influence performance, 40 male and 40 female college students were administered the task under two conditions: placing a number of self figures in relation to fixed social objects and placing the same social objects in relation to fixed self figures. There were no significant differences in separation distances or in vertical positioning under the two conditions. The study also investigated the degree to which the selected personality dimensions of extraversion, neuroticism, and internal versus external control related to schematic space.

Personal space: projective and direct measures with institutionalized mentally retarded children.

Summary Two measures of Personal Space (i.e., a projective interaction measure [PIM] and a direct physical interaction measure [DPIM]) were employed with institutionalized mentally retarded (IMR) children in order to determine whether or not they were actually unaware of their abnormality or merely denied its existence. Results indicate a marked difference between a projective interaction with a “normal” peer cutout figure (PIM) and a direct physical interaction with a “normal” person (DPIM). Furthermore, frequent attempts to escape the interaction situation with the “normal” person were observed during the DPIM, which often resulted in “flight reaction.”

Prediction of Behavioral Personal Space from Simulated Personal Space

Simulated and behavioral personal-space measures were administered to 170 male Ss. 36 scores obtained from 3 simulated measures were used to predict both unawareness and awareness behavioral personal space. A factor analysis of the simulated measures showed that they were rather distinct. Thus, a linear combination of them enhanced prediction. The multiple correlations of simulated scores with the unawareness and awareness measures were .41 and .61, respectively.

PREDICTION OF BEHAVIORAL PERSONAL SPACE FROM SIMULATED PERSONAL SPACE

Simulated and behavioral personal-space measures were administered to 170 male Ss. 36 scores obtained from 3 simulated measures were used to predict both unawareness and awareness behavioral person...

Personality and Demographic Correlates of Simulated Personal Space

Summary Personality, demographic, and simulated personal space measures were administered to 170 male college students. Correlations of the personality and demographic variables with the personal space measures indicated that Ss with a smaller personal space tended to be less aggressive, be more tolerant of ambiguity, be more self-acceptant, and have a higher ideal self. They also tended to be of Southern European extraction. Ss who had a smaller back personal space tended to have higher self-acceptance, higher emotional stability, and a lower consumption of alcohol.

Modeling and Personal Space Behavior in Children

Summary Approach vs. be approached behavioral measures of personal space were taken on 102 fifth and sixth grade children, each of whom was assigned to one of three groups: (a) Model-Close condition, (b) Model Far condition, and (c) No-Model Control group. A male peer served as model (M), and a 41-year-old female served as the object person. Results revealed a strong modeling tendency with both girls and boys tending to stay close or far from the object person as a function of M behavior. Boys and girls tended to behave similarly in the Close and Far modeling groups, but girls used more space in the No-Model Control condition. These findings suggest that modeling had an attenuating effect on sex differences in use of space. It was concluded that modeling theory is a viable conceptual tool for use in personal space research.

Relationships among self, other, and consensual personal space.

Measures of self, other, and consensual personal space in relation to a target person were administered to 170 male Ss. No significant mean differences and high intercorrelations were found among the personal space measures. It was concluded that the personal space of a person is affected by the personal space of another person, and both the personal space of the self and the other determine the personal space between them that is consensually obtained.

Relations among sensation seeking and simulated and behavioral personal space.

Summary Simulated and behavioral personal space measures and the Sensation Seeking Scale were administered to 20 males and 20 females. In the simulated measures Ss positioned male and female top profiles relative to a top profile representing themselves at each of nine equally spaced angles. For the behavioral measure Ss were approached by a male or female at each of the nine angles. The female “swinger” had greater simulated personal space. Males who liked new and interesting experiences had greater side and diagonal simulated personal space, and females high on the same scale had a closer behavioral personal space toward males except at the sides. Males and females responded similarly to males and females approaching from various directions. However, there was no relation between front and side simulated personal space for males. Size of personal space relative to females tended to be highly correlated with size of personal space toward males. However, for male Ss there was little relation between front...

Reduction of Anxiety and Personal Space as a Function of Assertion Training with Severely Disturbed Neuropsychiatric Inpatients

7 severely disturbed neuropsychiatric inpatients participated in a 12-session assertion training program as well as the normal hospital milieu therapy program. A matched group participated in only the normal hospital milieu therapy routine. All Ss were compared on the dependent measures of personal space and the Spielberger Self-evaluation Questionnaire 1 wk. before and 1 wk. after the assertion training program. The experimental group showed a significant reduction in both personal space and self-reported anxiety while the matched control group shewed no significant reduction. Small rhos indicate the need for further research examining the relationship between personal space and anxiety.