Measures Of Academic Achievement Research Articles

Exploring the Ethical Dimensions of Testing and Assessment: An Investigation Into Grade Inflation Among EFL Teachers

Concerns over grade inflation have been raised since teachers tend to give students higher grades than they should. If the level of achievement does not correspond to an appropriate improvement in quality, it can raise concerns about the value of grades as a meaningful measure of academic achievement as well as the integrity and effectiveness of the education system. This research aims to find out how EFL teachers perceive grade inflation and what procedures and ethical considerations they follow in the grade inflation process. A descriptive qualitative study was employed using structured questionnaires and semi-structured interviews with two high school EFL teachers in Bandung. The result showed that although academic performance remains a central consideration, unconscious biases may influence grading when student behavior is factored into assessments. Moreover, teachers acknowledge the dilemma of doing grade inflation where they actually get pressure implicitly from the assessment system, which often takes the form of minimum competency standard (KKM/KKTP). However, they approach it positively, viewing it as an opportunity to enhance student abilities. Despite employing different procedures and assessment criteria in their grade inflation practices, both teachers incorporate ethics. This highlights the need for all teachers to understand and implement ethical grading practices.

The Relationship between Responsibility and Academic Achievement among Secondary School Students in International Pioneers Academy Schools in Jordan

The study aimed to measure the relationship between responsibility in choice theory and academic achievement among secondary school students in Al-Rowad International Schools in Jordan. To achieve the goal of the study, the researchers used the descriptive, correlational approach and used the measure of responsibility and the measure of academic achievement. The study sample consisted of (50) male and female students. The sample was selected from secondary school classes randomly. The results of the study revealed that there is a direct relationship between responsibility and perceived academic achievement among high school students in Al-Rowad schools in Jordan, where the value of the correlation coefficient reached (0.808), which is a statistically significant value at the significance level (0.05). The study came out with several recommendations, the most prominent of which are: developing Activating guidance programs based on choice theory to improve responsible behavior to raise the level of achievement.

Investigating the interplay of student-teacher relationships, general anxiety, and school adjustment among Italian primary school children

ABSTRACT School adjustment is an important factor in children’s, and research attributes an important role to the quality of the teacher-student relationship in predicting more favourable school adjustment. The purpose of this study is to expand our knowledge of the relationship between teacher-student relationship quality and school adjustment (academic achievement, peer social preference, and problem behaviour) by examining the possible mediating role of general anxiety. We recruited a sample of 1135 Italian primary school students (51.6% girls, aged 6 ~ 10 years, M = 7.7; SD = 0.99) and their teachers who completed an anonymous questionnaire. Results showed that a close teacher-student relationship was significantly and negatively associated with problem behaviours and positively associated with peer social status and academic achievement. Conversely, our data showed that a high-conflict teacher-student relationship was significantly and positively associated with problematic behaviours and negatively associated with peer academic achievement and social status. Our data also suggested a mediating role of general anxiety in explaining the association between a conflictual relationship with the teacher and measures of academic achievement. In this sense, a high-conflict relationship tends to be associated with high levels of general anxiety, which in turn is associated with more in problematic behaviour and worse peer social status and academic achievement.

Investigating the relationship between prenatal alcohol exposure and children's behavioural and emotional development: analysis of the Growing Up in New Zealand study.

To examine the relationship between prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) and children's behavioural and emotional development in a large generalizable sample of women and their children in Aotearoa New Zealand. Using data from the Growing Up in New Zealand longitudinal cohort, we investigated the relationship between maternal PAE and behavioural and emotional development in 8-year-old children. We explored secondary outcomes including measures of language, executive function, academic achievement, and adaptive behaviour. We found no significant differences in the measures of behavioural and emotional development in children 8 years old based on alcohol consumption. No significant differences in behavioural and emotional development were found based on amount of PAE and when PAE occurred, despite controlling for a range of potential confounding factors, such as neighbourhood deprivation and maternal health measures. PAE was associated with significantly higher scores for parent-rated oral language indicating better oral language. In Māori mothers, PAE was significantly associated with an increased risk of higher scores on two of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire subscales. We did not find an association between PAE and behavioural and emotional development in children aged 8years. PAE and behavioural and emotional development are difficult to measure accurately, and the moderating variables between them are complex. Future analyses will require larger cohorts of mothers and their children using precise measures of PAE and outcomes to enable more precise estimates of association.

Teacher-assigned grades and external exams: sources of discrepancy

ABSTRACT Modest correlations between teacher-assigned grades and external assessments of academic achievement (r = .40–.60) have led many educational stakeholders to deem grades subjective and unreliable. However, theoretical and methodological challenges, such as construct misalignment, data unavailability and sample unrepresentativeness, limit the generalisability of previous findings. We overcome these challenges by exploiting rich, population-wide data from the National Registries in Norway (n = 511,858), where state regulations require close construct alignment between grades and external exams. Correlations between lower-secondary education final grades and external exam results (r = .64–.86) suggest that grades are better measures of academic achievement than previously acknowledged. Dominance analyses and multivariate regression analyses indicate that external exam results are the best predictor of grades in the same subject. However, our results also indicate that state regulations and quality assurance systems cannot completely eradicate potential sources of discrepancy.

Creation of a holistic admissions review process: A promising change designed to promote diversity and inclusion in nursing education

Objective: The holistic admissions process employs a review strategy designed to assess an applicant's unique life experiences together with traditional measures of academic achievement. This process considers a broad range of factors that reflect an applicant's potential for professional success in the nursing field. The purpose of this initiative was to introduce a holistic admissions process at a nursing program that has historically utilized an academic metrics-based approach.Methods: The nursing program identified goals and targets for holistic admissions as a means to evaluate the process and to make informed decisions that support the aim of increased student diversity.Results: A team-based approach was used to develop criteria for holistic admissions. Shared values for characteristics of ideal nursing applicants were discussed first, and a literature review was conducted, focusing on predictors of success in nursing school and on the nursing licensure examination. Criteria were developed aimed at capturing the shared values, predictors of success, while also allowing applicants to ‘tell their stories’ during the application process. A student-facing application and applicant faculty review process were created. Benchmarks for monitoring diversity of the student population were identified.Conclusions: Our faculty task force developed and implemented a holistic admissions review process and generated plans designed to monitor the improved diversity of the student population. Faculty reflections highlight the value of pursuing this change and moving forward with holistic admissions in our nursing program.

Enhanced Student Retention In Open And Distance Education Through Effective Academic Performance Model Using Naïve Bayes And K-Nearest Neighbor Machine Learning Algorithms

Improving student performance in an academic pursuit is one of the key concerns of institutions especially open and distance learning institutions where learners are separated from the institution by geographical region. The current observation of low-quality graduates from colleges and universities, particularly in open and distance learning, can be attributed to the lack of mechanisms that could help administrators at universities to forecast the academic achievement of the concerned students in the coming years. The goal of data mining in education is to create models, algorithms, and techniques for analyzing information gathered from learning environments to comprehend and enhance the learning process. The goal of this research is to identify patterns in the measures of academic achievement and how they relate to admission, high school, and personal information about the students. These findings can serve as a solid basis for customizing and enhancing the curriculum for open and distance learning to better suit the needs of individual students. Also, the research work identified factors that had a crucial influence on overall students’ performance. Hybridizing Naïve Bayes and K-Nearest Neighbor were used as Classifiers to develop a model for predicting the performance of students. The new model which is the hybridized model (combined Naïve Bayes and K-Nearest Neighbor) predicts better results than individual Naïve Bayes and K-Nearest Neighbor algorithms which shown itself as the best prediction and classification model.

Academic performance through multiple lenses: Intelligence, conscientiousness, and achievement striving motivation as differential predictors of objective and subjective measures of academic achievement in two studies of adolescents

In a two-sample investigation of 766 adolescents, we examined the associations and incremental validity of test-based intelligence, parent-rated conscientiousness, and self-rated achievement striving motivation with objective (grades) and subjective (parent-reported and self-reported academic performance) measures of academic achievement. The two studies yielded largely similar results. Intelligence was related to objective and subjective performance ratings. Conscientiousness showed associations and explained variance beyond intelligence in grades and parent-reported but mostly not in self-reported academic performance. Achievement striving motivation was largely related to and explained variance beyond intelligence and conscientiousness in grades and subjective performance ratings. Findings indicate that traits and motives predict objective and subjective academic achievement measures incrementally to abilities. Differential relationships for conscientiousness depended on the informant of academic performance.

Maximizing Student Outcomes in Schools: Data-Driven Individualized Education Program Goals and Objectives Aligned to the Standards.

Federal and state laws require schools to be accountable for student performance on measures of academic achievement in literacy, mathematics, and science skills; monitor high school graduation rates; and track student growth and academic progression throughout the grade levels. Success on these measures gives students pathways to postsecondary options in the workforce, technical education, or college/university education. Speech-language pathologists (SLPs) can utilize existing data sources in the school in conjunction with their knowledge of diagnostics and treatment of cognition, language, and culture to maximize student outcomes beyond the therapy room and in the curriculum standards. This clinical focus article will review methods of data collection from existing sources in the students' grade level and academic content curriculum. Utilization of information and input from parents, teachers, paraprofessionals, and others who support the student's academic endeavors will be discussed for Individualized Education Program Present Levels of Academic Achievement and Functional Performance and goal development. Procedures for the SLP to collect independent data aligned to standards-based curriculum will be explored. Consideration will be given for utilizing data to develop future goals and objectives. The benefits of data collection for monitoring student progress and success in the grade-level or alternate standards will be highlighted through case examples. Techniques for classroom-based services, model lessons, coaching, and co-teaching will be presented. SLPs are recognized as specialized instructional support personnel who have unique knowledge and expertise for diagnosing and treating speech/language impairments (S/LI) disabilities. By understanding how they can use existing data and apply it to developing intervention plans, SLPs can ensure students with S/LI disabilities experience the maximum potential for outcomes in academic and functional success. Data-driven tools and methods aligned to the grade-level standards and curriculum are one of the most powerful tools in an SLP's toolbox. https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.24869592.

Factors Influencing Academic Achievement Among College Students: The Influence of Emotional Intelligence, Student Engagement and Demographics

<p style="text-align: justify;">The issues of poor academic outcomes, dismissal, high attrition, and dropout rates among college students have long concerned for many educators and college communities. Several scholars have posited that these problems can be addressed through the development of emotional intelligence and increased student engagement. Considering these problems, the present study aimed to assess the efficacy of emotional intelligence and student engagement in improving academic performance. The sample of the study consisted of 119 undergraduate students selected using the convenience sampling technique. Self-report Emotional Intelligence Test and Student Engagement Scale were adopted to measure emotional intelligence and student engagement respectively. Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA) served as a measurement of academic achievement in the present study. Results from regression analyses revealed that certain components of emotional intelligence and academic engagement demonstrated a significant prediction effect on academic performance. From demographics, students’ programs of study showed a significant relationship with academic achievement. The present findings may provide directions for the college communities in fostering student engagement and emotional intelligence, thereby improving academic achievement of their students. The study also discusses limitations and future research directions.</p>

24 Adaptive Functioning and Academic Achievement in Survivors of Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

Objective:Executive functioning (EF) and socioeconomic status (SES) are associated with functional outcomes (adaptive functioning and academic achievement) in healthy controls and pediatric populations with executive dysfunction. However, these relationships have yet to be investigated in survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), a population with EF impairment resulting from disease and treatment characteristics. The objective of this study was to examine the associations of functional outcomes with EF and SES (neighborhood-specific variables and academic support) in survivors of childhood ALL.Participants and Methods:Forty-four participants (38.6% female, 72.7% non-Hispanic White, ages 6-17) previously diagnosed with low-risk or standard-risk pre-B cell ALL and treated with chemotherapy-only were included. Participants were evaluated on performance-based measures of EF (cognitive flexibility, verbal fluency, working memory, and processing speed) and academic achievement (word reading and math calculation), and parent-ratings of EF and adaptive functioning. All measures were expressed as T-scores with lower scores indicating better performance. Neighborhood-specific variables were based on participants’ zip codes and census block group, and included area deprivation index (ADI) and child opportunity index (COI). Lower ADI and COI indicate lesser deprivation and greater opportunity. Individualized education plan (IEP) status was used as a proxy of academic support, coded dichotomously as with or without IEP. Percentages of participants showing impairments in functional outcomes were calculated using a cutoff of > 1 SD above the normative mean. Partial correlations were conducted while controlling for age at evaluation, age at diagnosis, sex, and verbal IQ, to examine whether participants with poorer performance-based and parent-rated EF would show reduced functional outcomes. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to evaluate whether neighborhood-specific variables and IEP status would predict functional outcomes while controlling for covariates.Results:Compared to population norms, survivors of childhood ALL showed worse functional outcomes. Within adaptive functioning, 45.5% of participants showed impairment in activities of daily living and leadership. Adaptive functioning was significantly positively correlated with parent-rated, but not performance-based, EF (r=0.694, p<0.001). Compared to female survivors, male survivors were at increased risk for adaptive functioning difficulties (r=-0.401, p<0.05). Impairments for word reading and math calculation were 25% and 41.7%, respectively. Greater math calculation was associated with better verbal fluency (r=0.378, p<0.05) and processing speed (r=0.439, p<0.05). Older participants at evaluation (/3=-0.580, p<0.001) and those without IEP support (ß=0.465, p<0.05) showed better word reading. Lower ADI predicted better verbal fluency (ß=0.282, p=0.041), however, neighborhood-specific variables were not associated with functional outcomes.Conclusions:Prior findings indicate that performance-based measures and parent-ratings assess different constructs of EF. Thus, adaptive functioning may relate more to the behavioral construct of EF than its cognitive construct. Current findings also suggest that male survivors are at increased risk for reduced adaptive functioning, consistent with recent reports that male survivors of ALL are at greater risk for specific neurocognitive outcomes. Overall, functional outcomes may be more strongly related to EF than neighborhood-specific variables. Long-term goals include early screening of adaptive and academic difficulties, targeted intervention, and neuropsychological monitoring to support pediatric survivors’ neurocognitive and psychosocial development.

Predictors of academic motivation in the first year of college

Using data from the Wabash National Study of Liberal Arts Education, we analyzed whether certain precollege characteristics and experiences predicted students’ academic motivation when entering their first year of college. Results indicated that some precollege experiences positively predicted students’ academic motivation at the start of college, including certain minoritized identities, such as holding non-U.S. citizenship status, being a first-generation student, and being low-income; as well as higher measures of academic achievement and engagement, such as a higher high school GPA, a higher frequency of participation in high school extracurriculars, and a higher frequency of interacting with teachers. Conversely, higher ACT/SAT scores and higher reported frequency of socializing with friends negatively predicted students’ precollege levels of academic motivation. Implications for institutions of higher education, including faculty staff, as well as for high school guidance counselors, are considered.

The Evolution of Urban Physical Education Development Model and Its Innovative Development Strategy

In China's urban environment, physical education has changed significantly during the last few decades. Physical education programs are in higher demand than ever, especially in colleges, as people's knowledge of health and fitness has grown. This study examines the effectiveness of an innovative physical education development and strategy, based on self-determination theory principles, in promoting physical activity and motivation among undergraduate students in Taiyuan, China. A total of 256 participants enrolled in fitness-based physical activity classes at a university in China were included in the study. Data was collected through self-reported measures of physical education, physical fitness, innovativeness, lifestyle behavior, and academic achievement. Statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS software. The findings suggest that the physical education development model and strategy may be effective in promoting physical education, physical fitness, innovativeness, and academic achievement among undergraduate students in China. Further research may be needed to explore the relationship between academic achievement and lifestyle behavior in more detail and to identify any other factors that may be influencing academic achievement.

Cognition, Academic Achievement, Adaptive Behavior, and Quality of Life in Child and Adolescent Boys with Klinefelter Syndrome.

Klinefelter syndrome (KS; 47, XXY), the most common sex chromosome aneuploidy in males, is characterized by testicular failure and testosterone deficiency as well as a variety of cognitive, social, and emotional challenges. In the current study, we aimed to clarify the cognitive-behavioral profile of peripubertal boys with KS using measures of cognition, academic achievement, adaptive behavior, and quality of life. We compared 47 boys with KS (7-16 years of age) with 55 performance IQ-matched boys without KS on measures of cognition (WISC-V), executive function (BRIEF-2), academic achievement (KTEA-3), adaptive behavior (Vineland-3), and quality of life (PROMIS). In exploratory analyses, we examined associations among these measures and potential associations with pubertal metrics. Boys with KS demonstrated a significantly different profile of cognition, behavioral ratings of executive function, academic achievement, adaptive behavior, and quality of life compared with their typically developing peers, with, on average, lower functioning. The groups showed significantly different correlations between cognition and aspects of quality of life. No associations were observed between behavior and pubertal development. Taken together, these findings indicated that boys with KS are at increased risk for cognitive difficulties, which may affect academic achievement, adaptive behavior, and quality of life. Although initial exploratory analyses indicated that the magnitude of these alterations was not correlated with severity of testicular failure, longitudinal analyses currently being conducted by our group may help clarify the trajectory of these difficulties through the pubertal transition and testosterone replacement.

Examining perspective-taking skills in introductory geoscience students

Despite concerted efforts aimed at improving gender diversity in the discipline, the underrepresentation of women continues to persist in the geoscience domain. Research suggests that successful completion of introductory undergraduate STEM coursework is pivotal to the retention of students in STEM major programs and that spatial skills are fundamental to STEM learning at the introductory level. This study examines the relations between a specific type of spatial skill important to geoscience reasoning, perspective-taking skills, and conventional measures of academic achievement (i.e., grade point average and course-based assessment) critical for continuation in STEM major programs. Additionally, this study queries whether or not students’ perspective-taking skills improve after five-weeks of introductory geoscience coursework, and if this skill differs between genders. Students enrolled in an undergraduate Natural Hazards and Disasters geoscience course completed a measure of perspective-taking at the beginning and midway through the course. Results revealed that students’ perspective-taking skills were not related to their performance on conventional measures of academic achievement, and that they did not improve after five weeks of coursework. However, we did find that men outperform women on the measure of perspective-taking both at the beginning and midway through the course. These findings may have broad implications for interventions aimed at improving the retention of women in geoscience by bolstering women’s perspective-taking skills.

Effects of SRSD writing interventions in grade 3: examining the added value of attention vs. transcription training components

Children’s writing depends on strategic and self-regulated behaviors as well as on attention and transcription skills. Despite the well-established effectiveness of interventions based on the self-regulated strategy development model (SRSD), little is known about their effects when combined with the explicit teaching and systematic training of attention or transcription. This study compared the effects of SRSD interventions that taught students a planning strategy and how to use it compose text, with additional components of attention (via focused meditation exercises) or transcription (via copy and alphabet exercises). We used a quasi-experimental design with three groups of Portuguese third graders: SRSD + attention (n = 42), SRSD + transcription (n = 37), and wait list (n = 34). Measures of transcription, executive functions, motivation, written production, and academic achievement were collected before and after the interventions. Analyses of co-variance revealed that the SRSD + transcription group surpassed the others in terms of handwriting fluency as well as in terms of spelling accuracy, though only among the weakest spellers at pretest. Moreover, in comparison to the wait list group, both SRSD groups showed better planning skills, wrote more complete texts, and displayed better executive functioning at posttest. After the intervention, though the SRSD + transcription group produced better texts than their peers, the SRSD + attention group achieved better academic performance, but only among those with poorer grades at pretest. Regarding motivation, we only found an effect of the SRSD + transcription intervention on self-efficacy for ideation, among students with lower self-efficacy at pretest. These findings suggest the importance of articulating writing and self-regulation strategies with attention and transcription training in early schooling.

Cochlear Implantation and Educational and Quality-of-Life Outcomes in Adolescence

Cochlear implants (CIs) have been shown to be effective in improving auditory skills and speech and language development. However, less is known about the long-term outcomes of CIs on educational functioning or quality of life. To evaluate long-term educational outcomes and quality of life in adolescents over 13 years postimplantation. This longitudinal cohort study included 188 children with bilateral severe to profound hearing loss with CIs from the Childhood Development After Cochlear Implantation (CDaCI) study from hospital-based CI programs; a cohort of 340 children with severe to profound hearing loss without CIs from a nationally representative survey (National Longitudinal Transition Study-2; NLTS-2), and results from the literature of comparable children without CIs. Cochlear implantation (early and late). Adolescent performance on measures of academic achievement (Woodcock Johnson), language (Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language), and quality of life (Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory, Youth Quality of Life Instrument-Deaf and Hard of Hearing ). The CDaCI cohort included 188 children, 136 of whom completed the wave 3 postimplantation follow-up visits (77 [55%] female) with CIs; mean [SD] age was 11.47 [1.27] years. The NLTS-2 cohort included 340 children (50% female) with severe to profound hearing loss without CIs. Children with CIs had better academic performance compared with children without CIs with similar levels of hearing loss. The largest benefits were seen for children who received implants early (prior to age 18 months), who performed at or above age and gender norms for language and academic achievement. Similarly, adolescents with CIs reported better quality of life on the Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory compared with children without CIs. On a condition-specific measure (Youth Quality of Life Instrument-Deaf and Hard of Hearing), children who received implants early scored higher across all 3 domains than comparisons without CIs. To our knowledge, this is the first study to evaluate long-term educational outcomes and quality of life in adolescents using CIs. This longitudinal cohort study showed better outcomes of CIs in terms of language, academic performance, and quality of life. While the greatest benefits were observed for children who received implants before age 18 months, benefits were also noted for children who received implants later, providing evidence that children with severe to profound hearing loss with CIs can achieve at or above expected levels compared with hearing peers.

Contribution of sustained attention abilities to real-world academic skills in children

Sustained attention is a critical cognitive ability that improves over the course of development and predicts important real-world outcomes, such as academic achievement. However, the majority of work demonstrating links between sustained attention and academic skills has been conducted in lab-based settings that lack the ecological validity of a more naturalistic environment, like school. Further, most studies focus on targeted academic measures of specific sub-skills and have not fully examined whether this relationship generalizes to broad measures of academic achievement that are used for important, real-world, academic advancement decisions, such as standardized test scores. To address this gap, we examined the role of sustained attention in predicting targeted and broad assessments of academic abilities, where all skills were assessed in group-based environments in schools. In a sample of over 700 students aged 9–14, we showed that attention was positively related to performance on targeted assessments (math fluency and reading comprehension), as well as broad academic measures (statewide standardized test scores). Moreover, we found that attention was more predictive of targeted math sub-skills compared to assessments of broad math abilities, but was equally predictive of reading for both types of measures. Our findings add to our understanding of how sustained attention is linked to academic skills assessed in more ‘real-world’, naturalistic school environments and have important implications for designing tools to support student’s academic success.

The Impact of Academic Acculturation and Language Proficiency on International Students’ University Experience and Academic Success: A Longitudinal Study

The Canadian Academic English Language (CAEL) assessment is a proficiency test for university admission. Most research has focused on the paper edition, not the recent computer edition (CE). Validity research on other proficiency tests found that relationships between proficiency scores and academic achievement measures can be tenuous because other factors intervene in students’ chances of success. Research on academic success has examined academic acculturation as one factor. However, the impact of acculturation on academic achievement has not been examined alongside language proficiency test scores. The current study investigated this issue by focusing on students with a range of CAEL scores and examining the relationship between CAEL-CE scores, academic achievement, and academic acculturation. Forty-four students at a Canadian English-medium university participated in the study. Students’ grade point averages were obtained, and an academic acculturation questionnaire was administered. A subset of participants took part in focus groups. The findings and their implications are discussed.

Inference for Ranks with Applications to Mobility across Neighbourhoods and Academic Achievement across Countries

Abstract It is often desired to rank different populations according to the value of some feature of each population. For example, it may be desired to rank neighbourhoods according to some measure of intergenerational mobility or countries according to some measure of academic achievement. These rankings are invariably computed using estimates rather than the true values of these features. As a result, there may be considerable uncertainty concerning the rank of each population. In this paper, we consider the problem of accounting for such uncertainty by constructing confidence sets for the rank of each population. We consider both the problem of constructing marginal confidence sets for the rank of a particular population as well as simultaneous confidence sets for the ranks of all populations. We show how to construct such confidence sets under weak assumptions. An important feature of all of our constructions is that they remain computationally feasible even when the number of populations is very large. We apply our theoretical results to re-examine the rankings of both neighbourhoods in the U.S. in terms of intergenerational mobility and developed countries in terms of academic achievement. The conclusions about which countries do best and worst at reading, math, and science are fairly robust to accounting for uncertainty. The confidence sets for the ranking of the fifty most populous commuting zones by measures of mobility are also found to be small. These confidence sets, however, become much less informative if one includes all commuting zones, if one considers neighbourhoods at a more granular level (counties, census tracts), or if one uses movers across areas to address concerns about selection.