Measures Of Language Proficiency Research Articles

Quantifying linguistic heritage: Philological insights for high-impact language preservation

This research paper digs into the complex intersection of philological viewpoints and quantitative analysis to disentangle the dynamics of language protection. Considering the developing threat to language endangerment, our examination utilizes a comprehensive quantitative way to deal with the health of a particular linguistic community. With the utilization of language proficiency measures, documentation indices and demographic information, our review gives a complex comprehension of language evolution inside a cultural structure. The theoretical framework gives understanding into the complexities of language preservation techniques by coordinating deep rooted philological standards. Besides the fact that the discoveries add to the empirical comprehension of language preservation, they also furnish practitioners and policymakers with significant experiences. This examination desires to propel the discussion on language revitalization methodologies by melding the thorough quantitative methodology with the rich tradition of philology, stressing the importance of keeping up with linguistic legacy in a continually shifting global context. The implications of the examination go past scholarly circles, giving proof to practical, proof based activities to preserve endangered languages.

Academic and general language proficiency in post-entry language assessment

Abstract In higher education systems with no or low entry requirements for domestic students, post-entry language assessments (PELAs) are often used to detect at-risk students. This study investigates how two language proficiency measures relate to students’ academic achievement: an academic reading and vocabulary (ARV) screening test, and the computer test of the Interuniversitaire Taaltest Nederlands voor Anderstaligen (ITNA), a Dutch L2-entrance test. The ARV screening test, ITNA and its language in use subtest show moderate to weak correlations with achievement. While the ARV screening test selects a large potential at-risk group; the few students failing the ITNA, language in use or scoring lower than ‘very good’ on language in use have a higher risk of underperforming. When controlling for students’ background variables, only academic language proficiency remains a significant predictor. While academic language proficiency seems more appropriate as a PELA construct, general language proficiency may identify a small, but high-risk group.

Development of Literacy Engagement in Chinese Students with Varying Language Proficiencies

The objective of this study is to develop literacy engagement in Chinese students with varying language proficiencies through teacher-written corrective feedback. Drawing on Bandura’s social cognitive theory and Boekaerts and Corno’s self-regulation theory, the research aims to understand how corrective feedback influences literacy engagement and language proficiency. The study employs a qualitative analysis of student responses and reflective journals with quantitative measures of language proficiency and engagement metrics. The research site includes Chinese university classrooms with both low-proficiency (LP) and high-proficiency (HP) students. Key informants are LP and HP students who receive teacher-written corrective feedback. Data analysis involves thematic coding of student responses and statistical analysis of language proficiency scores and engagement levels. Results show that LP students initially display passive engagement but improve with targeted feedback, while HP students demonstrate active engagement and advanced literacy skills. The study suggests tailored pedagogical strategies for LP students and challenges for HP students to enhance literacy engagement and language proficiency.

Investigating the Mechanisms Behind Relations Between Academic Language and Reading Comprehension: The Role of Reading Self-Concept and Reading Enjoyment

Academic language and its associations with school success have been established in many prior studies. However, the scholarship lacks research on the mechanisms that constitute these relations. This study investigates the mediating role of motivational-­affective variables, specifically reading self-concept and reading enjoyment, in relations between academic language and reading comprehension assessed one year later. Path analyses were performed with a newly developed German measure of academic language proficiency on two samples (N = 198, M age = 9.05 years [SD = 0.76], 49% girls, and N = 360, M age = 9 years [SD = 0.80], 52% girls) of primary school students in Grades 2 and 3. Results reveal differential outcomes, suggesting an effect mediated via reading self-concept when academic language is operationalized as the comprehension of connectives. The findings are discussed within the context of contemporary perspectives on mental abilities, ranging academic language into current views on cognitive capabilities.

Caregiver and child question types during a museum interaction.

Children museums provide an engaging learning environment for families with exhibits designed to stimulate caregiver-child interactions. Specific types of questions have been shown to support child language learning by scaffolding more elaborative responses. This study analyzed the use of question form types during caregiver-child interactions in a children's museum, aiming to discern their correlation with child language proficiency. We examined and transcribed two exhibit explorations by 43 caregiver-child dyads (3- to 6-year-old children). Our analysis encompasses various syntactic question types (e.g., yes-no, wh-) and measures of child language proficiency, including lexical diversity, morphosyntactic complexity, and overall language ability. Findings reveal disparities in question form usage among caregivers and children, with caregivers predominantly employing closed questions and children balancing closed and open-ended types. Children of caregivers who predominantly posed closed questions exhibited shorter utterances and lower overall language scores. Details on other question forms are presented (sub-types of polar, wh-, alternative, and echo). These findings contribute to our understanding of how question form influences language development and caregiver-child interactions.

Validation of the Gap-fill as an Overall Measure of English Language Proficiency among Iraqi EFL Learners

The purpose of this study was to validate the Gap-fill among Iraqi EFL university students. To this end, two types of multiple-choice Gap-fill were administered to a sample of EFL students along with a number of other tests as criteria. Correlational analyses revealed moderate to strong correlations between the Gap-fill and the criterion measures. Principal components analysis resulted in a one-factor solution with the Gap-fill highly loading on this single factor. These were interpreted as validity evidence for the. Gap-fill Implication of the study for classroom testing are discussed. Keywords: Gap-fill, reduced redundancy principle, validity, conversational Gap-fill, written Gap-fill

Validation of the self-report classification tool to determine language dominance in Kannada-English bilinguals

Background In recent times, the efforts to profile the language characteristics of bilinguals have been extended from mere documentation of proficiency in each language to the determination of language dominance that captures both proficiency and usage (i.e., frequency & contexts) of each language. In multilingual countries, individuals are immersed in various languages in different contexts. With the broader intention to improve the linguistic profiling of bilinguals in countries with similar characteristics, we aimed to adapt and validate the Self-report classification tool in Indian Kannada-English bilinguals. Methods A group of 88 adult Kannada-English bilingual participants self-rated their language proficiency. We measured their language dominance with the adapted tool. Finally, to objectively measure their language abilities, we used the short version of the Bilingual Aphasia Test. Results Discriminant analysis of the ratings showed that the self-report classification tool accurately classified our participants into three groups based on language dominance. Both the self-rating and the objective measure of language proficiency supported the (dominance) classifications by the adapted tool. Conclusion Findings show that the adapted self-report classification tool is valid for determining language dominance in Kannada-English bilinguals. Further, the current study shows that this tool is adaptable to novel bilingual language dyads.

Validation of an elicited Imitation test as a measure of Korean language proficiency

This study presents a modified version of the Korean Elicited Imitation (EI) test, designed to resemble natural spoken language, and validates its reliability as a measure of proficiency. The study assesses the correlation between average test scores and Test of Proficiency in Korean (TOPIK) levels, examining score distributions among beginner, intermediate, and advanced learner groups. Using item response theory (IRT), the study explores the influence of four key facets—learners, items, raters, and constructs—on performance evaluation. An explanatory item response modeling (EIRM) analysis identified linguistic factors impacting the EI test’s performance. Notably, the study uncovered a robust positive correlation between EI test scores and TOPIK levels. Significant score disparities were observed between beginner and intermediate, as well as beginner and advanced, learner cohorts. An IRT-based exploration of each facet revealed that item difficulty was comparatively lower in contrast to learners’ commendable performance, and raters exhibited a high degree of scoring consistency. The EIRM analysis underscores the significance of variables such as the number of syllables, vocabulary score, and content word density in influencing test performance.

Subjective versus objective language proficiency measures in the investigation of bilingual effects on cognitive control

Purpose: Bilingual language experience is thought to confer non-linguistic benefits in general cognition including improved cognitive control. These bilingual effects are most often observed in samples of bilinguals who are highly proficient in both languages. However, across the majority of previous studies, assessments of language proficiency are exclusively subjective. While evidence supports that subjective and objective measures of language proficiency are correlated, no studies have explored whether the use of either measure impacts on model results when investigating bilingual effects on cognitive control. Methodology: Mandarin-English bilingual young adults completed both subjective and objective assessments of language proficiency and a Simon task to measure differences in cognitive control. Data and Analysis: Data were analyzed using linear mixed-effects models to best account for differences in linguistic and non-linguistic variables as well as the repeated-measures nature of the Simon task. Findings and Conclusions: We report no evidence in support of improved cognitive control associated with higher levels of language proficiency. Crucially, results did not differ when either subjective or objective measures were included in our models. Results support that both subjective and objective assessments of language proficiency may be equivalent when modeling bilingual effects on cognitive control. Originality: This study is the first direct investigation of the influence of the proficiency assessment method on model results. Implications: The findings of this study have implications for the assessment of language proficiency in future investigations of bilingual effects.

The Use of Pronoun Interpretation Biases in L1 Spanish: The Role of Language Proficiency, Exposure, and Use in Heritage Speakers

Abstract In an offline sentence comprehension task, we test the interpretation biases for null and overt pronouns and anaphoric and cataphoric pronouns in heritage speakers (HSs) whose first language (L1) is Spanish (L2 English). Previous studies have shown that Spanish HSs can interpret overt anaphoric pronouns differently than monolingual speakers. A question that remains unexplored is how HSs interpret cataphoric pronouns and how L1 experience affects pronoun resolution biases in these individuals. We recruited 48 HSs and 48 monolingual Spanish speakers. The results show that pronoun interpretation in HSs differs from monolingual biases, with HSs demonstrating a higher subject antecedent preference for anaphoric and cataphoric pronouns. The results further show that a continuous measure of language proficiency, exposure, and use may contribute to explaining pronoun interpretation biases in heritage Spanish. We discuss the findings in light of recent research demonstrating that language experience can contribute to shape discourse patterns.

Exploring the effectiveness of digital games as motivational tools for English language learning in primary school settings

This study aims to investigate the effectiveness of digital games as motivational tools for English language learning in primary school settings. In recent years, the integration of digital games into educational settings has gained significant attention due to their potential to enhance students' motivation and engagement. However, limited research has explored the specific impact of digital games on English language learning in primary school contexts. To address this gap, a mixed-methods approach was employed, combining quantitative measures of student motivation and language proficiency with qualitative data obtained through interviews and observations. The study involved a sample of primary school students aged 8 to 10 years in Shymkent, who participated in a digital game-based English language learning program over a period of 10 weeks. The findings revealed that the use of digital games positively influenced students' motivation to learn English and contributed to improvements in language proficiency. The students reported high levels of enjoyment and engagement while playing the games, which resulted in increased participation and active learning. Additionally, the qualitative data highlighted the potential of digital games to foster collaborative and communicative skills, as well as to provide opportunities for autonomous learning. However, some challenges, such as limited access to technology and the need for appropriate game design and pedagogical integration, were identified. This research contributes to the growing body of literature on gamification and digital technologies in education, emphasizing the potential of digital games as motivational tools for English language learning in primary school settings.

Examining the Reliability of the International English Language Testing System Design

Background: Despite the evolution of the International English Language Testing System (IELTS) to accommodate the evolving needs of test-takers and institutions, concerns have been raised regarding its reliability in assessing English language proficiency. Purpose: This study aimed to investigate the reliability of the International English Language Testing System (IELTS) design as a measure of English language proficiency. Methodology: To explore this issue, the research reviewed relevant literature and employed various methods, including frequency analyses, data analytics, and machine learning algorithms based on mathematical principles. Unlike previous studies, this work analysed a dataset of 33,505 authentic band scores, allowing for a comprehensive examination of IELTS test score patterns. Findings: The findings revealed that the concept of reliability is complex, and the statistical methods used by IELTS test providers, based on classical test theory, may provide approximate rather than precise scores. Relying solely on the reputation and authority of the IELTS test is insufficient to establish its reliability, as it involves logical fallacies and arguments from authority. Research implications: It is necessary to conduct further independent research to ensure the IELTS test's reliability and address the concerns expressed by researchers and test-takers.

The Effect of Language Dominance on Classic Semantic, Action, Emotional, and Phonemic Fluency in Unbalanced Bilinguals.

Verbal fluency evaluation in bilingual speakers should include dual-language assessment to obtain a comprehensive profile of word retrieval abilities. This study is the first to compare classic semantic, action, emotional, and phonemic fluency in terms of the magnitude of their performance gaps between the dominant and nondominant language in unbalanced bilingual speakers. We also examined the quantitative relationship between language dominance and verbal fluency performance. Twenty-six bilingual adults completed a comprehensive set of classic semantic ("animals," "vegetables"), action ("do"), emotional ("happy," "sad," "afraid"), and phonemic ("F," "A," "S") fluency tasks in their dominant language (English) and nondominant language (Spanish) in two sessions on separate days. Participants also completed subjective and objective measures of language proficiency. All tasks yielded fewer correct responses in the nondominant language. The between-languages performance gap was the largest for "animals" and the smallest for emotional fluency. "Happy" yielded the most balanced performance among all semantic tasks and a positivity bias that was unaffected by language dominance. Finally, language dominance scores computed by a newly developed formula indicated relationships between self-rated proficiency and fluency performance. This study provides preliminary, normative data of classic semantic, action, emotional, and phonemic fluency that could be used to gauge unbalanced bilingual speakers' performance. Significant impacts of language dominance on "animals" demand caution in using this widely used classic semantic category in evaluating bilingual speakers' performance. The data also underscore the robustness of positivity biases in emotional fluency and the validity of using subjective measures to supplement neuropsychological assessment of fluency performance.

Clinical Neuropsychology of Bilingual Mexican American Adults: Effect of Language Proficiency and Dominance.

To assess the association between language proficiency and absolute dominance on language versus visual-perceptual formatted and executive versus delayed memory neuropsychological measures in bilingual adults. Data from 55 bilingual, conversationally fluent, neurologically intact, Mexican American, consecutive, adults tested in separate sessions in Spanish and English in a counterbalanced order were analyzed. Age, years of education, self-reported language proficiency, Woodcock-Muñoz Language Survey-Revised (WMLS-R) picture vocabulary measures of language proficiency, and dominance (absolute Spanish-English WMLS-R difference scores) were correlated with 11 measures from La Batería Neuropsicólogica en Español and its original English language tests. Self-reported and WMLS-R measures of language proficiency were significantly correlated in each language. Absolute language dominance was not significantly associated with any Spanish or English neuropsychological raw score. The WMLS-R language proficiency, but not age or years of education, was significantly correlated with language-formatted neuropsychological measures of California Verbal Learning Test delayed free recall number of words (both languages), letter fluency (both languages), delayed story memory (in English), and Stroop interference (Spanish). Linear regression models using age, years of education, and WMLS-R picture vocabulary scores as predictors were significant for all these measures excepting the last. The WMLS-R language proficiency was not significantly associated with raw scores on any visual-perceptual formatted measure. Monolingual neuropsychological test norms for language-formatted tests likely overestimate bilingual Mexican Americans' performance.

FACTORS AFFECTING LISTENER PERCEPTION OF ACCENTED SPEECH: THE ROLE OF ACCENT FAMILIARITY AND LINGUISTIC TRAINING

ABSTRACT Listeners have been shown to judge second language (L2) users more negatively than L1 speakers on measures of language proficiency and even on personal qualities. However, less is known about what factors affect listener judgment which this study seeks to explore. In the study, one first language (L1) English speaker recorded her spontaneous speech (i.e. the baseline recording). Three other speakers of English (with Northern American, moderate Chinese, and heavy Chinese accents) read aloud two scripts controlled for content and language (one grammatical and one ungrammatical), resulting in six scripted recordings. Six-hundred and eighty-seven listeners with mixed L1s were randomly allocated into six groups. Each group listened to the same baseline recording and a different scripted recording. They evaluated the speakers’ proficiency on 9-point scales and reported their background information via an online questionnaire. Results suggested that speakers’ accents negatively influenced listeners’ proficiency judgment. However, a threshold was observed regarding this influence; specifically, the moderately-accented speaker was not perceived negatively compared to L1 speakers. Multiple regression showed that listeners’ accent familiarity and linguistic training were positively associated with their rating severity, meaning that these variables have the potential to affect listeners’ perceptual bias against L2 users.

LexMAL: A quick and reliable lexical test for Malay speakers

Objective language proficiency measures have been found to provide better and more consistent estimates of bilinguals’ language processing than self-rated proficiency (e.g., Tomoschuk et al., 2019; Wen & van Heuven, 2017a). However, objectively measuring language proficiency is often not possible because of a lack of quick and freely available language proficiency tests (Park et al., 2022). Therefore, quick valid vocabulary tests, such as LexTALE (Lemhöfer & Broersma, 2012) and its extensions (e.g., LexITA: Amenta et al., 2020; LEXTALE-FR: Brysbaert, 2013; LexPT: Zhou & Li, 2022) have been developed to reliably assess language proficiency of speakers of various languages. The present study introduces a Lexical Test for Malay Speakers (LexMAL), which estimates language proficiency for Malay first language (L1) and second language (L2) speakers. An initial 180-item LexMAL prototype was evaluated using 60 Malay L1 and 60 L2 speakers in Experiment 1. Sixty words and 30 nonwords with the highest discriminative power that span across the full difficulty range were selected for the final LexMAL based on point-biserial correlations and an item response theory analysis. The validity of LexMAL was demonstrated through a reliable discrimination between L1 and L2 speakers, significant correlations between LexMAL scores and performance on other Malay language tasks (i.e., translation accuracy and cloze test scores), and LexMAL outperforming self-rated proficiency. A validation study (Experiment 2) with the 90-item final LexMAL tested with a different group of Malay L1 (N = 61) and L2 speakers (N = 61) replicated the findings of Experiment 1. LexMAL is freely available for researchers at www.lexmal.org.

Language pedagogies and late-life language learning proficiency

Abstract Late-life language learning has gained considerable attention in recent years. Strikingly, additional language (AL) proficiency development is underinvestigated, despite it potentially being one of the main drivers for older adults to learn an AL. Our study investigates whether Dutch older adults learning English for three months significantly improve their AL skills, and if explicit or implicit language instruction is more beneficial. Sixteen learners participated in online weekly group lessons, five days of 60-min homework, and pre-post-retention tests. Half were randomly assigned to the mostly explicit condition and half to the mostly implicit condition. Data includes language proficiency measures and 201 dense-data spoken homework samples. Results show improvements in several areas for both conditions. For structural errors in homework, we found implicitly taught participants to make significantly more mistakes. Our exploratory data show that older adults significantly develop AL proficiency after a short language training, and, as we only found differences between conditions on one construct, that teaching pedagogies do not play a substantial role.

Using multiple measures of language dominance and proficiency in Farsi-English bilingual children

This paper aims to identify effective means of measuring dominance and proficiency in bilingual children. Thirty-seven Farsi-English Heritage language speaking children from 6;1 to 11;6 were assessed on their vocabulary, morphosyntax, and narrative microstructure skills in both languages to address whether there is a difference between their proficiency in Farsi as a heritage and English as a majority language, how the scores on the vocabulary, morphosyntax, and narrative microstructure tasks relate to one another, and based on the results of each task in both languages if any of the children are at risk for a Developmental Language Disorder. Vocabulary was assessed using the LITMUS- Cross-Linguistic Lexical Task (CLT), morphosyntax using the LITMUS-Sentence Repetition (SR) tasks, and Narrative microstructure using the LITMUS-Multilingual Assessment Instrument for Narratives (MAIN). Individual language proficiency was identified via an in-depth profile analysis for each participant who looked at their performance on all experimental tasks in both languages. The data demonstrated that on the vocabulary and narrative tasks the participants were more dominant in English than in Farsi, while on the sentence repetition task there were no significant differences between the two languages. Correlation analyses showed that vocabulary scores were strongly correlated to the sentence repetition scores and the microstructure scores. The English and Farsi sentence repetition scores also correlated moderately with the microstructure scores within each language. Profile analysis showed that no child within the study scored < 1.5 or 2 standard deviations below the mean on more than two tasks in both languages. However, interesting patterns emerged indicating that some participants had a greater proficiency in one language vs. the other language. The results from this study showed that measuring language within a single domain (e.g., morphosyntax) is not enough to identify a bilingual child's language dominance and/or proficiency. Instead, an in-depth profile analysis and language assessments across various language domains need to be done in order to appropriately measure language dominance and proficiency. Consequently, this study supports the importance of measuring language across multiple domains in studies of bilingual children. The clinical significance of appropriately identifying language dominance and proficiency was also shown, as such information would allow clinicians to make more appropriate clinical decisions.

Are people really less moral in their foreign language? Proficiency and comprehension matter for the moral foreign language effect in Russian speakers.

Previous work has demonstrated that people are more willing to sacrifice one person to save five in a foreign language (FL) than in their native tongue. This may be due to the FL either reducing concerns about sacrificial harm (deontological inclinations) or increasing concerns about overall outcomes (utilitarian inclinations). Moreover, proficiency in a foreign language (FL) may moderate results. To test these possibilities, we investigated the moral foreign language effect (MFLE) in a novel sample of Russian L1/English FL speakers. We employed process dissociation (PD)-a technique that independently assesses concerns about rejecting harm and maximizing outcomes in sacrificial dilemmas, and we assessed measures of objective and subjective foreign language proficiency and of dilemma comprehension. Results replicated the pattern of increased acceptance of sacrificial harm in FL demonstrated in earlier studies, but a PD analysis showed no evidence of increased concerns for utilitarian outcomes in a FL; instead, this pattern was driven by reduced concerns regarding sacrificial harm. However, people who reported better dilemma comprehension in the FL demonstrated both stronger deontological and utilitarian responding, and people with higher objective proficiency displayed stronger utilitarian responding in the FL than those with lower proficiency. These findings show that utilitarian inclinations are affected by reading dilemmas in a foreign language mainly in low-proficiency speakers, and that while emotional concerns for sacrifice are reduced in FL, better comprehension can increase such concerns as well as concern for outcomes.

Examining the comparability of parallel English and Chinese elicited imitation tasks

The suite of elicited imitation tasks (EITs) developed originally by Ortega et al. (2002) has been validated as an effective measure of second language (L2) proficiency and adopted in different L2 studies. However, the comparability of the crosslinguistic parallel EITs, all developed based on the English version, has yet to be explored. This exploratory study investigated the comparability of Ortega et al.’s parallel English and Chinese EITs by analyzing L2 English data collected from 82 L2 English participants in Wu et al. (2022) and L2 Chinese data collected from 80 L2 Chinese participants in Wu and Ortega (2013). Despite the crosslinguistic variation observed between the English and Chinese EITs, the converging evidence gathered from internal consistency, item discriminatory power, correlations with external proficiency measures, and abilities to discriminate four speaking levels indicates that the two parallel EITs tap roughly the same language proficiency components in each language. Crucially, the classification drawn from the same CAF measures across both languages suggests that the five proficiency levels of the EIT scores (i.e., Novice = 0–24; Low = 25–48; Intermediate = 49–72; High = 73–96; Advanced = 97–120) can consistently discriminate language abilities into distinctive levels across both languages. We hope the proposed five proficiency levels will enhance the application and interpretation ability of Ortega et al.’s parallel EITs in crosslinguistic, bilingual, and multilingual research.