Meanings In Different Languages Research Articles

Конкретизация при переводе текстов с английского на узбекский

Concretization or specification is one of the widely used methods of translation. This is because finding exact equivalents with the same meaning in different languages can be difficult or impossible. The articles explores various types of concretization in the context, and analyzes their functions in translating texts from English into Uzbek

NATIONAL AND CULTURAL PECULIARITIES OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS WITH ORNITHONYM COMPONENTS IN ENGLISH AND KARAKALPAK LANGUAGE

The purpose of this article is to identify the national and cultural peculiarities of phraseological units with ornithonym components in English and Karakalpak language. The novelty of the study is that the authors have carried out work on systematizing phraseological units with zoonyms, namely designations birds, in two languages: English and Karakalpak; In addition, the research material was distributed across thematic groups, which made it possible to identify interesting patterns. Semantic analysis ornithophraseologisms showed, on the one hand, similarity, and on the other hand, differences in the use of ornithonyms in composition of phraseological units with similar meanings in different languages. KEY WORDS AND PHRASES: language; linguistics; linguo-culturology; phraseological unit; zoonym; ornithonym.

How Grammar Conveys Meaning: Language-Specific Spatial Encoding Patterns and Cross-Language Commonality in Higher-Order Neural Space.

Languages come in different forms but have shared meanings to convey. Some meanings are expressed by sentence structure and morphologic inflections rather than content words, such as indicating time frame using tense. This fMRI study investigates whether there is cross-language common representation of grammatical meanings that can be identified from neural signatures in the bilingual human brain. Based on the representations in intersentence neural similarity space, identifying grammatical construction of a sentence in one language by models trained on the other language resulted in reliable accuracy. By contrast, cross-language identification of grammatical construction by spatially matched activation patterns was only marginally accurate. Brain locations representing grammatical meaning in the two languages were interleaved in common regions bilaterally. The locations of voxels representing grammatical features in the second language were more varied across individuals than voxels representing the first language. These findings suggest grammatical meaning is represented by language-specific activation patterns, which is different from lexical semantics. Commonality of grammatical meaning is neurally reflected only in the interstimulus similarity space.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Whether human brain encodes sentence-level meanings beyond content words in different languages similarly has been a long-standing question. We characterize the neural representations of similar grammatical meanings in different languages. Using complementary analytic approaches on fMRI data, we show that the same grammatical meaning is neurally represented as the common pattern of neural distances between sentences. The results suggest the possibility of identifying specific grammatical meaning expressed by different morphologic and syntactic implementations of different languages. The neural realization of grammatical meanings is constrained by the specific language being used, but the relationships between the neural representations of sentences are preserved across languages. These findings have some theoretical implications on a distinction between grammar and lexical meanings.

The aesthetic analysis of idiomatic expressions in Amaụzari Igbo: A socio-cultural approach

Idiomatic expressions are useful tools for communicating a great deal of meaning in different languages. The purpose and the objective of this study are to examine the aesthetic nature of idiomatic expressions and to illustrate how Igbo people use idiomatic expressions in discourses. This study takes a socio-cultural approach to how words in the language are used in oral expressions for entertainment and peaceful discussions that bind the Amaụzari people together. Amauzari is a town in Isiala Mbano local government area of Imo State, Nigeria. The study used a sample population of over hundred men and women for her data collection. The aesthetic characteristics of idiomatic expressions are exhibited and appreciated especially during cultural ceremonies that attract a lot of people to the villages in Amaụzari. Data for this study were collected from the primary source. We collected data through participant observations of discourse contexts. The study used over hundred men and women as the sample population for data collection. The Theoretical framework we adopted in the study is Linguistic relativity which is known as the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis shows that the meaning of utterances is from cultural conventions for how the words are used and interpreted. The study discovered that the appropriate use of idiomatic expression is a mark of pragmatic competence. In conclusion, the study shows that the characteristics of idiomatic expressions contribute to the peaceful existence of people according to their cultural backgrounds.

Variasi Dialek Bahasa Jawa Ngoko, Krama dan Krama Inggil di Daerah Oku Timur (Kajian Dialektologi)

This research is motivated by the diversity of language in a community group in the East Oku area which is dominated by the Javanese language. This research aims to describe the lexical differences of Javanese dialect variations and also describe and illustrate the mapping of Javanese dialect variations. The problems revealed in the research regarding the variation of Javanese dialect ngoko, krama, and krama inggil in the East Oku area (dialectological study). The source of informants of this research is the community or people who are elders in the village and understand the Javanese language Krama Ingil aswell as native Javanese people who migrated to Karang Binangun II Village. The research method is descriptive qualitative, with data collection techniques using interviews, recording, and simak libat cakap techniques. Data analysis was carried out using the intralingual pairing technique that connects lingual elements that refer to the meaning of the elements in the language. The results of the study can be concluded that dialectal variation is a diversity of languages that have relationships and differences in language use as well as the meaning caused. Phonological variation, experiencing changes in vowels /a/,/i/, /u/, /e/, /o/. Lexical variation is determined by the same meaning in different languages. Whilegrammatical variation is influenced by affixation, repetition, or fusion, in two regions that cause changes in meaning.

KONTRASTIVNA ANALIZA SOMATSKIH FRAZEOLOGIZAMA SA KOMPONENTOM „OKO” U ITALIJANSKOM, ŠPANSKOM I SRPSKOM JEZIKU (SEMANTIČKO POLjE PAŽNjA/OPREZ)

This paper deals with the analysis of idioms containing the lexeme “eye” in the Italian, Spanish and Serbian languages. Since somatic idioms, especially those with the lexeme “eye”, represent a large part of the phraseological fund of three languages, only those idioms that express attention/caution were analyzed. Italian was the source language, whereas Spanish and Serbian are the target languages. The initial hypothesis was that two typologically related languages (Italian and Spanish) would share more common phraseological characteristics in comparison to typologi- cally unrelated language (Serbian). In order to prove the hypothesis from general and phraseological dictionaries, as well as from electronic sources, a research corpus was excerpted. Using the method of contrastive analysis, similarities and differences were identified from lexical, semantic and morphosyntactic aspects in order to establish the type of equivalence between the idioms at the interlingual level. The type of equivalence was determined for 22 idioms containing the lexeme “eye” in Italian, 19 in Spanish and 17 in Serbian. By contrasting the Italian and Spanish idioms, it can be concluded that there is absolute equivalence between 10 idioms, 5 of them form a relationship of partial equivalence with morphosyntactic differences, 2 a relationship of partial equivalence with lexical differences, 1 a relationship of partial equivalence with morphosyntactic and lexi- cal differences, zero equivalence is established between 3 idioms, and 1 false friend isidentified. On the other hand, the comparison of Italian and Serbian idioms gave the following results: 7 absolute equivalents, 4 partial equivalents with morphosyn- tactic differences, 5 partial equivalents with lexical differences, 1 partial equivalent with morphosyntactic and lexical differences, while zero equivalence was recorded in 5 cases, and there were no false friends. It can be seen that in both Spanish and Serbian, the highest percentage of idioms are absolute equivalents with their Italian correspondent, although that percentage is lower in Serbian than in Spanish. Therefore, it can be concluded that the initial hypothesis has been proven, ie. that typologically related languages share more common phraseological characteristics. However, the number of partial equivalents between Italian and Serbian is very high. This can be explained by the fact that somatic idioms, due to the universality of bod- ily experience, reveal similarities between languages that do not belong to the same language family. The existence of universal human knowledge and associations about body parts explains the existence of somatisms that have the same or similar structure and meaning in different languages. On the other hand, although the human body has the same functions in all languages, their symbolism is culturally determined (Kovačević, 2012: 16-17), and that could explain the existence of zero equivalence and false friends at the interlingual level.

Russian Particle Prosto (‘Simply’): the Expantion of Functions

The lexical means of marking expressiveness: modal particles, adverbials are analyzed. The Russian particle/adverb prosto ‘simply’ is highlighted but German English and Polish equivalents are also taken into consideration. The case of metaphorization based on the concept ‘simple’ is under investigation. In other words this paper intends to make input into the answer to the question: ‘What are the features of lexis that make it possible of figurative thinking in the sphere of expressivity? The idea of simplicity is rather common for means expressing emphasizing and implication in some (not all anyway) languages: Rus. Prosto Fr. (tout) simplement, Germ. einfach Eng. Simply The metaphorical shift in the situation of emphasizing X prosto Y can be reconstructed in this way: ‘there are many ways of evaluating X, X can be named Y and one does not need other, more complicated means’. The meaning of causality (as it often occurs with particles) is mostly based on implicated cause, and that makes it possible to use this particle even when the causal relation is not evident. Rather often the idea of the cause needs a chain of implication: Mozhno? Ya prosto xotela sprosit; May I come in? I just wished to ask’(3). ‘I ask the permission to enter, (because I need something here), and this is to ask for something that I find not complicated,(so the cause of my ask for the permition is a simple desire to get some information)”. In such examples the function of the particle is similar to adverbials (as actually) or even hesitators. The function of hesitators is being developed later than others. This fact can be described in terms of microdiachrony. The conclusion about the importance of describing the system of connections in the language, reflecting the specifics of changing the prototypic meaning in different languages is made.

Discursive Formulas Derived from Propositional Predicates

The study is in line with the work on discursive formulas — multiword idiomatic remarks in response to the words of the interlocutor. Discursive formulas based on propositional predicates on the material of several languages, are considered. Discursive formulas of agreement and confirmation, disagreement and denial, surprise are presented as the object of description. The importance and relevance of studying discursive formulas is determined by the fact that they play an important role in the processes of oral communication, and also by the fact that these units are to a large extent linguistically specific. The novelty of the study is determined by the fact that in the work on the material of several languages, analogies and differences in the structure of the considered discursive formulas of different languages, linguistically specific formulas are considered. Two types of differences in the structure of discursive formulas in different languages have been revealed: 1. The same meaning in different languages is expressed by expressions that are different in their internal form. 2. Discursives in different languages, similar in their internal form, differ in their meanings. The study of discursive expressions in different languages is essential for semantic typology.

Autism in science - 'through the looking glass' and the role of empathy in the equation.

Autism in science - 'through the looking glass' and the role of empathy in the equation.

Creating a Parallel Corpora for Turkish-English Academic Translations

Parallel corpora are data sets created by representing sentences with the same meaning in different languages. One of the most important elements that determine the quality in machine translation systems is the parallel corpora created in large quantities and with high quality. Such data for the Turkish – English language pair are generally insufficient. In this study, a large amount of parallel corpora has been created that can be used for academic translations between Turkish and English languages. While creating this data set, the abstracts of the postgraduate theses were used. The best matches were obtained using sentence alignment algorithms such as Vecalign and Hunalign. As a result of the studies, 1M parallel sentence pairs were obtained. In addition, an Bi-LSTM-based translation system was created to measure the quality of the obtained data. The created model obtained 15.8 Bleu points with zero-shot learning method on the TED (Tr-En) test set.

Question Expansion Technique On The Different Translations Of The Holy Quran By Using WordNet And Islamic Synonyms

The Holy Quran is the most significant religious text, which is followedby thebelievers of the Islamic religion. The translations of the Quran are the interpretation of its meaning in different languages, to assist those who are not familiar with the Arabic language.Most of the Quranic search systems that support theneeds of who are non-native speakers of the Arabic language of the contents of the Holy Quran are basedon keywords matching. Since there are several known English translations of the Holy Quran and each translation has its terminology based on the style of the translator. In addition to that, there are Islamic terms might be not used in the English language, such as "Hajj" or "Saum,"where these terms might vary from one translation to another. Therefore, these search systems do not support the needs of the user, and often there isno matching between the terms of user's questionandtheterms of the Quran.Consequently, this research has used the synonymsofWordNet to expand the user's question,and to cover all the possibilities of theterms that might be usedin the Quran translation, but there are many of Islamic terms are not available in the WordNet database. The WordNet has been enhanced with a set of Islamic synonyms that have been used in the well-known Islamic translations of the English language, which it was created by the researcher, to increase the likelihood of providing a sure matching between the question's words and the contents of the Quran translation. According to the results of this study, the evaluation of this research proved that the method of question expansion by using the both of the WordNet and the Islamic synonyms showed better accuracy and efficiency than the traditional keywords matching systems, or the system that uses only the WordNet synonyms in the question expansion method in terms of matching all user's questions words with documents and retrieve the correct answers to these questions.

THE WAY UKRAINIANS LEARNT THE CZECH LANGUAGE IN CZECHOSLOVAKIA OR UKRAINIAN INTERWAR IMMIGRATION IN THE NEW LINGUISTIC FIELD (1918-1939)

The phenomenon of cross-linguistic homonymy is the result of closely related languages’ interaction, confusing the same or similar sounding words which have different meanings in different languages. The Ukrainian immigrant community in the interwar Czechoslovakia is no exception. The life of the people of Ukrainian origin in the interwar Czechoslovakia can be conditionally divided into four periods. The first one dates back to 1918-1921 when the detachments of Ukrainian Galicia Army entered the territory of the First Czechoslovak Republic: “Hirska Brygada”, “Stary Tabir”, “Hlyboka”, “Krukenychy”. This first period for the people of Ukrainian origin in the interwar First Czechoslovak Republic is characterized by the lack of interest in learning the Czech language in general as far as most of the campers, who had conversational fluency in German and Polish, were waiting for settling the status of Eastern Galicia, the fate of the Western Ukrainian People’s Republic and solving the conflict in Cieszyn Silesia. The second period dates back to 1921-1925 when the majority of antibolshevik immigration arrived in the interwar First Czechoslovak Republic. Especially this period is characterized by the active learning of the Czech language. The immigrants had two ways of mastering the language. The official way was acquiring the high education in the Czech and Ukrainian educational establishments. However, the most widespread way was the unofficial one, when the language was learnt in the shops, restaurants, bars or other working places where unskilled manual labour was required (for example, at Tomash Batia’s shoe factory, different plants and enterprises); right in the streets after all within different communication situations. The third period in the life of the people of Ukrainian origin on the territory of the interwar First Czechoslovak Republic took place in 1925-1929 and was called “povorontnytstvo”. During this period there was no way of speaking about mastering the Czech language and using cross-linguistic homonyms. In the 1930s due to the world economic crisis and shutting down the access to the Czechoslovak labour market for the people of Ukrainian origin the issue of learning the Czech language was not raised at all. The majority of the people of Ukrainian origin who stayed in Prague and its suburbs or moved to Transcarpathia had already mastered the Czech language by that time. Thus, on the one hand the provocative similarity created a number of obstacles, misunderstandings, it caused tragic and sometimes comic situations. On the other hand, it spiced up the everyday lives of the people of Ukrainian origin.

Translation and Cross-Cultural Validation of Korean Version of the Menstrual Distress Questionnaire

Given the increase in cross-cultural studies, there is a need for adequately translated and validated study instruments. Using instruments translated into participants’ native language can lower barriers to study participation and increase study validity. The purpose of this study was to describe the translation and validation processes of the Korean version (MDQ-K) of the Menstrual Distress Questionnaire (MDQ). The MDQ was translated into Korean through a forward-and-backward translation process, followed by expert review and pilot testing among 100 bilingual Korean students. The equivalence of MDQ-K to MDQ was tested through bivariate Pearson’s correlations and paired t tests. The psychometric properties of the MDQ-K were evaluated through internal consistency and construct validity (confirmatory factor analysis). The reliability of the questionnaire was good (Cronbach’s α = .96). The results of confirmatory factor analysis revealed an acceptable model fit to the data. Overall, the MDQ-K demonstrated acceptable psychometric properties, although paired t tests found significant differences ( p < .05) between the MDQ and MDQ-K in the means of three items: “restlessness” (Item 22), “bursts of energy and activity” (Item 40), and “blind spots and fuzzy vision” (Item 46). Possible explanations for these discrepancies include the participants’ varying English proficiency levels, issues with understanding medical terminology, and absence of words with the same meanings in different languages. We also discussed possible deletion of questionnaire items through further factor analysis.

GlobalTrait: Personality Alignment of Multilingual Word Embeddings

We propose a multilingual model to recognize Big Five Personality traits from text data in four different languages: English, Spanish, Dutch and Italian. Our analysis shows that words having a similar semantic meaning in different languages do not necessarily correspond to the same personality traits. Therefore, we propose a personality alignment method, GlobalTrait, which has a mapping for each trait from the source language to the target language (English), such that words that correlate positively to each trait are close together in the multilingual vector space. Using these aligned embeddings for training, we can transfer personality related training features from high-resource languages such as English to other low-resource languages, and get better multilingual results, when compared to using simple monolingual and unaligned multilingual embeddings. We achieve an average F-score increase (across all three languages except English) from 65 to 73.4 (+8.4), when comparing our monolingual model to multilingual using CNN with personality aligned embeddings. We also show relatively good performance in the regression tasks, and better classification results when evaluating our model on a separate Chinese dataset.

СЕМАНТИЧЕСКИЕ ОСОБЕННОСТИ ФРАЗЕОЛОГИЧЕСКИХ ЕДИНИЦ С КОМПОНЕНТОМ-ОРНИТОНИМОМ В АНГЛИЙСКОМ, НЕМЕЦКОМ И РУССКОМ ЯЗЫКАХ

The article aims to identify the structural and semantic peculiarities of the English, German and Russian phraseological units with a component-ornithonym. The originality of the study involves the systematization of the English, German and Russian phraseological units with a component-ornithonym. The research material was classified into thematic groups, which allowed identifying interesting peculiarities. The semantic analysis of phraseological units with a component-ornithonym revealed both similarities and differences in ornithonyms usage in the structure of phraseological units with similar meaning in different languages.

‘Rigour’, ‘discipline’ and the ‘systematic’: The cultural construction of educational research identities?

In the present scientific era which prefers evidence-based educational research and methodological gold standards, ‘rigour’, ‘discipline’ and the ‘systematic’ serve as standardising and homogenising concepts and as powerful identifiers of ‘normal science’ in the context of historical and cultural contingencies. These concepts serve to construct disciplinary identities and, furthermore, have the power to define what counts as rigour, discipline and the systematic – and what not. The article starts with the problems of terminology and shows that rigour, discipline and the systematic are rather vague and ambivalent concepts, especially when considering their meaning in different languages and cultures. The second part uses different foci of several theoretical approaches in order to show the meaning and functions of rigour, discipline and the systematic for constructing educational research identities and to explain different notions of these concepts in different research cultures. The final part considers the future and argues for the strengthening of a transversal, (meta-)reflexive and communicative dimension which both opens and limits the forms and formats of educational research employing diversity and intercultural communication as a valuable and powerful resource of sound scholarly research, mutual understanding and intellectual delight.

Compounds with the Same Denotative Meaning in Different Languages

This article was devoted to the study of the specifics of national language thinking by representatives of different linguistic cultures in the nomination of complex nouns. The research was based on cognitive analysis, supported by the methods of semantic identification; descriptive-analytical and comparative. The quantitative method of material processing was used as required. A systematic approach to the study of compounds with the same denotative meaning in different languages needed the postulation of a meta-language, which could be a criterion for assessing a language in the light of its philological specificity. The peculiarities of cognitive comprehension of identical concepts and phenomena of the surrounding reality were revealed in the course of studying the relations of equivalence, continuity, inclusion, intersection, mixing, refinement, and contraindication, established between the CSOM components. The material of the work and the results of the study could also serve as a basis for further research in this area, in the practice of teaching English, German and Tatar languages among the English-language audience, and used in courses especially those in lexicology, comparative philology, cognitive semantics, as well as lexicographical practice.

What Is New in Rome IV.

Functional gastrointestinal disorders (FGIDs) are diagnosed and classified using the Rome criteria; the criteria may change over time as new scientific data emerge. The Rome IV was released in May 2016. The aim is to review the main changes in Rome IV. FGIDs are now called disorders of gut-brain interaction (DGBI). Rome IV has a multicultural rather than a Western-culture focus. There are new chapters including multicultural, age-gender-women’s health, intestinal microenvironment, biopsychosocial, and centrally mediated disorders. New disorders have been included although not truly FGIDs, but fit the new definition of DGBI including opioid-induced gastrointestinal hyperalgesia, opioid-induced constipation, and cannabinoid hyperemesis. Also, new FGIDs based on available evidence including reflux hypersensitivity and centrally mediated abdominal pain syndrome. Using a normative survey to determine the frequency of normal bowel symptoms in the general population changes in the time frame for diagnosis were introduced. For irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) only pain is required and discomfort was eliminated because it is non-specific, having different meanings in different languages. Pain is now related to bowel movements rather than just improving with bowel movements (ie, can get worse with bowel movement). Functional bowel disorders (functional diarrhea, functional constipation, IBS with predominant diarrhea [IBS-D], IBS with predominant constipation [IBS-C], and IBS with mixed bowel habits) are considered to be on a continuum rather than as independent entities. Clinical applications such as diagnostic algorithms and the Multidimensional Clinical Profile have been updated. The new Rome IV iteration is evidence-based, multicultural oriented and with clinical applications. As new evidence become available, future updates are expected.

Questionnaire Designing Process: A Review

Questionnaires in different languages have expanded research into new dimensions by performing studies in variety of cultural groups and validating these questionnaires in those respective languages have ensured more precise and accurate information about the particular population. Questionnaire should always have a definite purpose that is related to the objectives of the research. To develop a questionnaire, various factors such as question sequence, layout, content, response structure & wordings are to be formed. On forming a questionnaire, pretest or pilot validation is performed, which is followed by translation into the local vernacular language of the target population to administer it to the local group of patients, because all the patients are not aware of the original language of the Questionnaire in which it formed. It is desired to be validated in that particular language by the most appropriate validation procedure for each questionnaires, because there will be chance of particular word having similar meaning in different languages which can change the interpretation of the question. Validation of questionnaire have important implications to develop research methodology for the evaluation of the specific disorders and the validity of the research outcomes and thus it is important for clinicians/researchers who wish to use questionnaires as a research tool. Once the validation of a questionnaire is successful into the desired language, the questionnaire will be more acceptable by the society and Physician, which can provide more accurate diagnostic result.

The Mind(s) of China: Don’t Deeds Speak Louder Than Words?

Asian Perspective 40 (2016), 753-757 BOOK REVIEW ESSAY The Mind(s) of China: Don't Deeds Speak Louder Than Words? Walter C. Clemens Jr. Christopher A. Ford. China Looks at the West: Identity, Global Ambitions, and the Future ofSino-American Relations. Lex­ ington: University Press of Kentucky, 2015. Fred Dallmayr and Zhao Tingyang, eds. Contemporary Chinese Political Thought: Debates and Perspectives. Lexington: Uni­ versity Press of Kentucky, 2012. Ren Xiao. “Ideas Change Matters: China’s Practices and the East Asian Peace.” Asian Perspective, vol. 40, no. 2 (2016), pp. 329-355. Seok-Hyun Hong. “Bring the Tigers into the Trees: The Rise of China and the Future American Role in Asia.” Global Asia, vol. 11, no. 1 (Spring 2016), pp. 63-69. Recognizing the importance to world peace of China's relations with the United States, it is natural to ask how each side views its place in the world and its relationship with the other great power. The daily news confirms that US leaders disagree with each other on these questions. Learning about China’s mind or minds is more difficult. The less outsiders know about an authoritarian political sys­ tem, the more they are tempted to assume that the system not only speaks with one voice but also thinks in some uniform way. But as time passes and revelations from inside the system appear, we often see that ostensible uniformity masks internal complexity and even discord. Thus, Nikita Khrushchev’s Cuba missile gambit and John F. Kennedy’s response were shaped not only by a strate­ gic logic but also by bureaucratic routines and partisan/factional 753 754 The Mind(s) of China political struggles (Allison and Zelikow 1999). Probably every large polity will experience similar influences on policymaking and implementation. The personal ambitions and propensities of top leaders will also shape both politics and policy. Thus, the Great Helmsman Mao Zedong faced strong challenges from rivals such as Lin Biao and more muted disagreement by Zhou Enlai and others.1 Given the epistemological problems, outsiders must hesitate before assuming that a top leader’s preferences are backed by his entourage and public. Indeed, Christopher Ford devotes the first three chapters of China Looks at the West to “the challenges of Sinological epistemology.” Ford’s response to these challenges is to focus on official Chinese statements to see what they reveal about official attitudes and policies. Mutual understanding is also complicated by linguistics. Words such as democracy can carry very different meanings in different languages and contexts. Going back more than a century, Ford shows how democracy and the US model meant something different for Sun Yat-sen and other Chinese leaders from what US leaders and citizens understood. Looking beyond officially sanctioned statements, the diversity of Chinese perspectives is manifest in the debates and perspec­ tives recorded in Contemporary Chinese Political Thought. This anthology, edited by Fred Dallmayr and Zhao Tingyang, contains deep analyses by academics in Beijing, Taipei, Hong Kong, Aus­ tralia, and the United States. The nuanced views presented here are epitomized in Zhao Tingyang’s chapter, “All-Under-Heaven and Methodological Relationism: An Old Story and New World Peace.” Here, and elsewhere, Chinese authors demonstrate their familiarity with Western writings and criticisms of Chinese poli­ cies. Western sinologists also demonstrate their knowledge of Chinese perspectives, but relatively few Western political analysts can use Chinese language sources. Having studied Chinese language sources and met with many Chinese leaders and military analysts, veteran US sinologist Michael Pillsbury warns that Chinese elites are rather united in support of a hundred-year marathon to replace the United States as world hegemon.2 Ford’s book, however, shows this view to be Walter C. Clemens Jr. 755 an oversimplification. China has been of at least two minds about the United States, he writes. He calls these two strands of Chinese thought “aspirational” (positive, emulative) and “oppositional.”3 Since the time of Deng Xiaoping, Chinese politicians and political writers have agreed that China is rising, but they have disagreed on whether—and when—China’s ascent portends armed conflict with the United States. The more that Chinese president Xi Jinping represses dissent and pushes to mobilize the country’s...