Mean Level Of Parental Education Research Articles

Comparison of Oral Health Status and Behaviors Between Children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Healthy Children in Rasht City, Iran

Objectives: In this study, the caries experience, gingivitis and behaviors of 6-12 year old children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) were investigated according to the Frankl scale during dental examination, and then compared with healthy children.Materials and Methods: Totally, 55 children with ASD (including 49 males and 6 females) and 165 healthy children (including 83 males and 82 females) were assessed in Rasht, Iran. Before clinical examination, their parents were asked to complete a questionnaire consisting of several questions about parental education level, nutritional status and oral hygiene status. The number of decayed, missing and filled teeth, gingival status and behaviors of the children were recorded during the dental examination. The obtained data were analyzed using Chi-square and Mann Whitney U Test. P-value less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant.Results: Our results implied that the children with ASD had higher DMFT/dmft scores compared with healthy children (p<0.001). Also, the prevalence of localized and generalized gingivitis was higher in children with ASD than that in healthy children (p=0.014). Most of the children with ASD behaved in negative or definitely negative manner during dental examination (p=0.001). The results showed that the mean level of parental education and oral hygiene habits (such as frequency of brushing and flossing) in healthy children were higher than that in the children with ASD.Conclusions: According to the results, the children with ASD had higher caries experience and gingivitis compared with healthy children and most of them behaved in negative or definitely negative manner during dental examination.

Normative data of the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure for Italian-speaking elementary school children.

The Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test (ROCF) is a widely used neuropsychological test for the evaluation of drawing disorders in different clinical populations, and, in particular, in persons with neurodevelopmental disorders. The aim of the present study is to provide normative data for ROCF copying (ROCF-Direct copy) and drawing from memory (ROCF-Immediate recall) in Italian-speaking children. The sample consisted of 348 children (147 males and 199 females), aged 7-11years, recruited from elementary schools in Southern Italy. Normative data were gathered from 312 participants fulfilling the inclusion criteria, and estimated centiles were obtained according to the LMS method providing normalized growth centile standards. Results showed a significant effect of age on performance in both tasks, with a steady increase of drawing accuracy, whereas participants' gender and mean level of parental education did not exert any significant effect. Thus, normative data were stratified by age, and percentile scores were provided allowing a practical use of the ROCF for the clinical evaluation of drawing abilities in both typical and atypical children.

Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III: Normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric population.

To generate normative data for the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III (PPVT-III) in Spanish-speaking pediatric populations. The sample consisted of 4,373 healthy children from nine countries in Latin America (Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Honduras, Guatemala, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico) and Spain. Each participant was administered the PPVT-III as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. PPVT-III scores were normed using multiple linear regressions and standard deviations of residual values. Age, age2, sex, and mean level of parental education (MLPE) were included as predictors in the analyses. The final multiple linear regression models showed main effects for age in all countries, such that scores increased linearly as a function of age. In addition, age2 had a significant effect in all countries, except Guatemala and Paraguay. Models showed that children whose parent(s) had a MLPE >12 years obtained higher scores compared to children whose parent(s) had a MLPE ≤12 years in all countries, except for Cuba, Peru, and Puerto Rico. Sex affected scores for Chile, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, and Spain. This is the largest Spanish-speaking pediatric normative study in the world, and it will allow neuropsychologists from these countries to have a more accurate interpretation of the PPVT-III when used in pediatric populations.

Symbol Digit Modalities Test: Normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric population.

To generate normative data for the Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT) in Spanish-speaking pediatric populations. The sample consisted of 4,373 healthy children from nine countries in Latin America (Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico) and Spain. Each participant was administered the SDMT as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. SDMT scores were normed using multiple linear regressions and standard deviations of residual values. Age, age2, sex, and mean level of parental education (MLPE) were included as predictors in the analyses. The final multiple linear regression models showed main effects for age in all countries, such that score increased linearly as a function of age. In addition, age2 had a significant effect in all countries, except in Honduras and Puerto Rico. Models indicated that children whose parent(s) had a MLPE >12 years of education obtained higher score compared to children whose parent(s) had a MLPE ≤12 years for Chile, Guatemala, Mexico, and Spain. Sex affected SDMT score for Paraguay and Spain. This is the largest Spanish-speaking pediatric normative study in the world, and it will allow neuropsychologists from these countries to have a more accurate interpretation of the SDMT with pediatric populations.

Trail Making Test: Normative data for the Latin American Spanish-speaking pediatric population.

To generate normative data for the Trail Making Test (TMT) in Spanish-speaking pediatric populations. The sample consisted of 3,337 healthy children from nine countries in Latin America (Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico) and Spain. Each participant was administered the TMT as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. The TMT-A and TMT-B scores were normed using multiple linear regressions and standard deviations of residual values. Age, age2, sex, and mean level of parental education (MLPE) were included as predictors in the analyses. The final multiple linear regression models showed main effects for age on both scores, such that as children needed less time to complete the test while they become older. TMT-A scores were affected by age2 for all countries except, Cuba, Guatemala, and Puerto. TMT-B scores were affected by age2 for all countries except, Guatemala and Puerto Rico. Models indicated that children whose parent(s) had a MLPE >12 years of education needed less time to complete the test compared to children whose parent(s) had a MLPE ≤12 years for Mexico and Paraguay in TMT-A scores; and Ecuador, Mexico, Paraguay, and Spain for TMT-B scores. Sex affected TMT-A scores for Chile, Cuba, Mexico, and Peru, in that boys needed less time to complete the test than girls. Sex did not affect TMT-B scores. This is the largest Spanish-speaking pediatric normative study in the world, and it will allow neuropsychologists from these countries to have a more accurate approach to interpret the TMT in pediatric populations.

Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure - copy and immediate recall (3 minutes): Normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric populations.

To generate normative data for the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure (ROCF) in Spanish-speaking pediatric populations. The sample consisted of 4,373 healthy children from nine countries in Latin America (Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico) and Spain. Each participant was administered the ROCF as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. The ROCF copy and immediate recall (3 minutes) scores were normed using multiple linear regressions and standard deviations of residual values. Age, age2, sex, and mean level of parental education (MLPE) were included as predictors in the analyses. The final multiple linear regression models showed main effect for age on copy and immediate recall scores, such that scores increased linearly as a function of age. Age2 affected ROCF copy score for all countries, except Puerto Rico; and ROCF immediate recall scores for all countries, except Chile, Guatemala, Honduras, Paraguay, and Puerto Rico. Models indicated that children whose parent(s) had a MLPE >12 years obtained higher scores compared to children whose parent(s) had a MLPE≤12 years for Chile, Puerto Rico, and Spain in the ROCF copy, and Paraguay and Spain for the ROCF immediate recall. Sex affected ROCF copy and immediate recall score for Chile and Puerto Rico with girls scoring higher than boys. This is the largest Spanish-speaking pediatric normative study in the world, and it will allow neuropsychologists from these countries to have a more accurate approach to interpret the ROCF Test in pediatric populations.

Shortened Version of the Token Test: Normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric population.

To generate normative data for the Shortened Version of the Token Test in Spanish-speaking pediatric populations. The sample consisted of 4,373 healthy children from nine countries in Latin America (Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico) and Spain. Each participant was administered the Shortened Version of the Token Test as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. Shortened Version of the Token Test total scores were normed using multiple linear regressions and standard deviations of residual values. Age, age2, sex, and mean level of parental education (MLPE) were included as predictors in the analyses. The final multiple linear regression models showed main effects for age in all countries, such that score increased linearly as a function of age. In addition, age2 had a significant effect in all countries, except Guatemala and Puerto Rico. Models showed that children whose parent(s) had a MLPE >12 years obtained higher score compared to children whose parents had a MLPE ≤12 years in Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, Puerto Rico, and Spain. The child's sex did not have an effect in the Shortened Version of the Token Test total score for any of the countries. This is the largest Spanish-speaking pediatric normative study in the world, and it will allow neuropsychologists from these countries to have a more accurate interpretation of the Shortened Version of the Token Test when used in pediatric populations.

Concentration Endurance Test (d2): Normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric population.

To generate normative data for the Concentration Endurance Test (d2) in Spanish-speaking pediatric populations. The sample consisted of 4,373 healthy children from nine countries in Latin America (Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico) and Spain. Each participant was administered the d2 test as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. The Total number of items processed (TN), Total number of correct responses (CR), Total performance (TP), and Concentration performance (CP) scores were normed using multiple linear regressions and standard deviations of residual values. Age, age2, sex, and mean level of parental education (MLPE) were included as predictors in the analyses. The final multiple linear regression models showed main effects for age on all scores, such that scores increased linearly as a function of age. TN scores were affected by age2 for Guatemala and Puerto Rico; CR scores were affected by age2 for Mexico; TP scores were affected by age2 for Chile, Mexico, Puerto Rico, and Spain; and CP scores for Mexico and Spain. Models indicated that children whose parents had a MLPE >12 years obtained higher scores compared to children whose parents had a MLPE≤12 years for Mexico and Spain in all scores, and Puerto Rico for TN, CR, and TP, and Guatemala and Paraguay for CP scores. Sex affect the scores for Ecuador and Honduras (CP scores). This is the largest Spanish-speaking pediatric normative study in the world, and it will allow neuropsychologists from these countries to have a more accurate approach to interpret the d2 test in pediatric populations.

Stroop Color-Word Interference Test: Normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric population.

To generate normative data for the Stroop Word-Color Interference test in Spanish-speaking pediatric populations. The sample consisted of 4,373 healthy children from nine countries in Latin America (Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico) and Spain. Each participant was administered the Stroop Word-Color Interference test as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. The Stroop Word, Stroop Color, Stroop Word-Color, and Stroop Interference scores were normed using multiple linear regressions and standard deviations of residual values. Age, age2, sex, and mean level of parental education (MLPE) were included as predictors in the analyses. The final multiple linear regression models showed main effects for age on all scores, except on Stroop Interference for Guatemala, such that scores increased linearly as a function of age. Age2 affected Stroop Word scores for all countries, Stroop Color scores for Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, and Spain; Stroop Word-Color scores for Ecuador, Mexico, and Paraguay; and Stroop Interference scores for Cuba, Guatemala, and Spain. MLPE affected Stroop Word scores for Chile, Mexico, and Puerto Rico; Stroop Color scores for Mexico, Puerto Rico, and Spain; Stroop Word-Color scores for Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, Puerto Rico and Spain; and Stroop-Interference scores for Ecuador, Mexico, and Spain. Sex affected Stroop Word scores for Spain, Stroop Color scores for Mexico, and Stroop Interference for Honduras. This is the largest Spanish-speaking pediatric normative study in the world, and it will allow neuropsychologists from these countries to have a more accurate approach to interpret the Stroop Word-Color Interference test in pediatric populations.

Verbal fluency tests: Normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric population.

To generate normative data for the phonological and semantic verbal fluency tests (VFT) in Spanish-speaking pediatric populations. The sample consisted of 4,373 healthy children from nine countries in Latin America (Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico) and Spain. Each participant was administered the VFT as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. Scores for letters F, A, S, and animals and fruit categories were normed using multiple linear regressions and standard deviations of residual values. Age, age2, sex, and mean level of parental education (MLPE) were included as predictors in the analyses. The final multiple linear regression models showed main effects for age on all scores, such that scores increased linearly as a function of age. Age2 had a significant effect in Chile (animals), Cuba (A letter, fruits), Ecuador (animals, fruits), Honduras (F letter), Mexico (animals, fruits), Peru (fruits), and Spain (S letters, animals, fruits). Models showed an effect for MLPE in Chile (A letters, animals, fruits), Ecuador (S letter, animals, fruits), Guatelama (F, S letter, animals), Honduras (animals), Mexico (F, A, S letters, animals, fruits), Puerto Rico (A, letters, animals), and Spain (all scores). Sex scores were found significant in Chile (animals), Ecuador (A letter, fruits), Mexico (F letter, fruits), Paraguay (F, A, S letters, fruits), Puerto Rico (F letter, animals, fruits), and Spain (F letter, fruits). This is the largest multi-national Spanish speaking-pediatric normative study in the world, and as such it will allow neuropsychologists from these countries to have a more accurate way to interpret the phonological and semantic VFT in pediatric populations.

Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (M-WCST): Normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric population.

To generate normative data for the Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (M-WCST) in Spanish-speaking pediatric populations. The sample consisted of 4,373 healthy children from nine countries in Latin America (Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico) and Spain. Each participant was administered the M-WCST as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. Number of categories, perseverative errors, and total error scores were normed using multiple linear regressions and standard deviations of residual values. Age, age2, sex, and mean level of parental education (MLPE) were included as predictors in the analyses. The final multiple linear regression models indicated main effects for age on all scores, such that the number of categories correct increased and total number of perseverative errors and total number of errors decrease linearly as a function of age. Age2 had a significant effect in Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, and Spain for numbers of categories; a significant effect for number of perseverative errors in Chile, Cuba, Mexico, and Spain; and a significant effect for number of total errors in Chile, Cuba, Peru, and Spain. Models showed an effect for MLPE in Cuba (total errors), Ecuador (categories and total errors), Mexico (all scores), Paraguay (perseverative errors and total error), and Spain (categories and total errors). Sex affected number of total errors for Ecuador. This is the largest Spanish-speaking pediatric normative study in the world, and it will allow neuropsychologists from these countries to have a more accurate way to interpret the M-WCST with pediatric populations.

Methodology for the development of normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric populations.

To describe the methodology utilized to calculate reliability and the generation of norms for 10 neuropsychological tests for children in Spanish-speaking countries. The study sample consisted of over 4,373 healthy children from nine countries in Latin America (Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico) and Spain. Inclusion criteria for all countries were to have between 6 to 17 years of age, an Intelligence Quotient of≥80 on the Test of Non-Verbal Intelligence (TONI-2), and score of <19 on the Children's Depression Inventory. Participants completed 10 neuropsychological tests. Reliability and norms were calculated for all tests. Test-retest analysis showed excellent or good- reliability on all tests (r's>0.55; p's<0.001) except M-WCST perseverative errors whose coefficient magnitude was fair. All scores were normed using multiple linear regressions and standard deviations of residual values. Age, age2, sex, and mean level of parental education (MLPE) were included as predictors in the models by country. The non-significant variables (p > 0.05) were removed and the analysis were run again. This is the largest Spanish-speaking children and adolescents normative study in the world. For the generation of normative data, the method based on linear regression models and the standard deviation of residual values was used. This method allows determination of the specific variables that predict test scores, helps identify and control for collinearity of predictive variables, and generates continuous and more reliable norms than those of traditional methods.

Newly developed Learning and Verbal Memory Test (TAMV-I): Normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric population.

To generate normative data for the Learning and Verbal Memory Test (TAMV-I) in Spanish-speaking pediatric populations. The sample consisted of 4,373 healthy children from nine countries in Latin America (Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico) and Spain. Each participant was administered the TAMV-I as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. Free recall, memory delay and recognition scores were normed using multiple linear regressions and standard deviations of residual values. Age, age2, sex, and mean level of parental education (MLPE) were included as predictors in the analyses. The final multiple linear regression models indicated main effects for age on all scores, such that scores increased linearly as a function of age. Age2 had a significant effect in all countries except Cuba, and Puerto Rico for free recall score; a significant effect for memory delay score in all countries except Cuba and Puerto Rico; and a significant effect for recognition score in in all countries except Guatemala, Honduras, and Puerto Rico. Models showed an effect for MLPE in Chile (free recall), Honduras (free recall), Mexico (free recall), Puerto Rico (free recall, memory delay, and recognition), and Spain (free recall and memory delay). Sex affected free recall score for Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Spain, memory delay score for all countries except Chile, Paraguay, and Puerto Rico, and recognition score for Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, and Spain, with girls scoring higher than boys. This is the largest Spanish-speaking pediatric normative study in the world, and it will allow neuropsychologists from these countries to have a more accurate way to interpret the TAMV-I with pediatric populations.

Animal Verbal Fluency and Design Fluency in school-aged children: Effects of age, sex, and mean level of parental education, and regression-based normative data

The Animal Verbal Fluency (AVF) and Design Fluency (DF) structured and unstructured test versions were administered to N = 294 healthy native Dutch-speaking children who were aged between 6.56 and 15.85 years. The AVF and DF structured test scores increased linearly as a function of age, whilst the relation between age and the DF unstructured test score was curvilinear (i.e., the improvement in test scores was much more pronounced for younger children than for older children). A higher mean level of parental education was associated with significantly higher AVF and DF structured test scores. Sex was not associated with any of the outcomes. Demographically corrected norms for the AVF and DF tests were established, and an automatic scoring program was provided.

Lateral preferences and their assessment in school-aged children

A behaviour-based lateral preference instrument (the Lateral Preferences Questionnaire; LPQ; Van Strien, 1992, 2001) was administered to a large sample of school-aged children. The aims of the present study were twofold: (i) to evaluate the factor structure and the psychometric properties of the LPQ, and (ii) to evaluate the effects of age, gender, and mean level of parental education on lateral preferences and lateral consistency. Two factor models had an excellent fit with the data. In the first model the LPQ items were considered to be indicators of four different lateral preference factors (the hand, foot, eye, and ear preference factors). In the second model the LPQ items were considered to be indicators of four lateral preference factors, which were in turn expected to load on a single underlying general lateral preference factor. The psychometric properties of the derived hand and eye preference scales of the LPQ were good to excellent, and the psychometric properties of the foot and ear preference scales were acceptable. Lateral preferences and lateral consistency were not affected by age, gender, or mean level of parental education.

On the mediating effects of pregnancy and birth stress events on the relation between lateral preferences and cognitive functioning in healthy school-aged children

If the pathological left-handedness theory is valid, left-handed people who also experienced pregnancy and birth stress events (PBSEs) would especially be expected to deviate from the cognitive norm (rather than left-handers in general). This hypothesis was tested in a large sample of healthy children (aged 6.6–15.9 years). Multiple cognitive abilities were assessed, including verbal fluency and working memory. Children with a left lateral preference who also experienced a PBSE did not deviate from the cognitive norm. Age was positively associated with all cognitive measures, and mean level of parental education strongly affected verbal fluency functioning.