Mean Length Of T-unit Research Articles

Measuring Linguistic Growth in Sentence-Level Writing Curriculum-Based Measures: Exploring Complementary Scoring Methods.

Picture-word writing curriculum-based measures (PW CBM-Ws) are technically sound, formative measures of descriptive, sentence-level writing but cannot estimate underlying linguistic skills. The purpose of this exploratory alternative scoring investigation was to apply metrics from language sample analysis (LSA) to PW CBM-Ws as a complementary measure of underlying language skills in beginning writers' sentence-level writing. LSA metrics were applied to 104 typically developing first through third graders' PW CBM-W samples across fall and spring semesters. Factorial analyses of variance with post hoc Bonferroni pairwise comparisons were applied after obtaining alternate-form reliability and criterion-related validity estimates. Analyses revealed reliable discrimination between grades and significant growth between fall and spring semesters for three LSA metrics: mean length of T-unit in words, mean length of T-unit in morphemes, and number of different words. While mean length of T-unit in words and morphemes demonstrated evidence of discrimination and growth in first grade only, number of different words showed evidence of reliable discrimination and growth in first and third grades. Mean length of T-unit in words, mean length of T-unit in morphemes, and number of different words showed evidence of adequate criterion-related validity, discrimination among grades, and sensitivity to growth when calculated using PW CBM-W samples to gauge underlying linguistic skills in first- and third-grade students. Implications and future directions for research are discussed. https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.25050290.

Dynamic Development in L2 Written Complexity of Chinese EFL Learners

Abstract The present study investigated the developmental trajectories of written language of two Chinese EFL learners in terms of complexity over one semester and explored the relationship between syntactic complexity and lexical complexity under the framework of Complex Dynamic Systems Theory (CDST). The data were processed using dynamic analyses (min-max graphs, moving correlations and Change-point analysis) to visualize the developmental process and variability of each subsystem of complexity with 4 measures (mean length of T-unit, mean length of clause, clauses per T-unit and VocD) and interactions between different subsystems. The results showed, first, that different subsystems of written language complexity developed dynamically and nonlinearly with different degrees of variability, and varied in the two participants. Second, interactions existed between syntactic complexity and lexical complexity, which shaped as competitors for Jenny but as connected growers for Helen. The results further deepened the understanding of the development in learners’ written complexity, providing significant implications for EFL writing teaching.

Examining gender effects in autistic written language skills: A small sample exploratory study.

Gender differences in the written language of autistic individuals are an overlooked but important area of research. We contend that the gender differences in spoken language of autistic individuals may extend to written language, mirroring the gender differences of writing in the general population and reflecting the shared dimensionality of oral and written language. Our research question was: Do autistic adolescent females demonstrate written language characteristics, across persuasive, expository, and narrative genres, that are distinct from those of autistic adolescent males and non-autistic (NA) adolescent females? We performed a secondary, exploratory analysis on writing samples collected from 18 participants (11 autistic males, three autistic females, and four NA females) from a larger investigation of autistic adolescents' writing skills. Each participant completed three writing samples-one persuasive, one expository, and one narrative (for a total of 54 writing samples). We compared sample length (total number of words), writing productivity (words written per minute), syntactic length (mean length of T-unit in words), vocabulary diversity (type-token ratio), and macrostructure of autistic females' samples to autistic males' and NA females' samples. Based on non-parametric analyses using variable medians, autistic males, but not autistic females, wrote significantly shorter expository samples than NA females. Autistic males' writing productivity was significantly lower in the persuasive and expository genres than both autistic females and NA females. Several other comparisons of sample length, productivity, vocabulary diversity, and persuasive and narrative macrostructure yielded large effect sizes but were not statistically significant. Though our small sample sizes prevent us from drawing generalizable conclusions, we observed that some gender-specific findings of the current study differ from previous findings based on a single autistic group (females and males combined). Combining data of autistic females with autistic males may cloud the distinct written language characteristics of each group. Our findings, especially when situated in the context of relevant literature, suggest that larger-scale investigation of gender differences in written language is essential in order to more fully describe the unique characteristics of autistic females. Clinicians should be prepared to support autistic writers' needs for producing written language to meet their developmental, academic, social, and employment-related goals.

A machine learning-based investigation of syntactic complexity measures in second language acquisition of Chinese

Abstract L2 syntactic complexity research has shown that employing multidimensional measures to assess writing proficiency levels may yield more accurate results compared to one-dimensional measures. However, the optimal number and combination of measures have not been thoroughly explored. This study addresses these gaps by employing a novel machine learning-based approach to quantitatively investigate the effectiveness of multidimensional measures and determine the optimal combination of measures. Through the analysis of a dataset comprising 36 L2 Chinese learners, we found that multidimensional syntactic complexity measures outperformed one-dimensional measures in accurately differentiating learners. Specifically, a combination of three measures (Mean Length of Sentence, Mean Length of T-unit, and Mean Length of Clause) achieved the highest accuracy in classifying the learners. The implications of this research include the development of computer-assisted placement tests and proficiency evaluations, as well as providing practical guidance for language teachers in designing complexity-based instruction.

Effects of cognitive task complexity and online planning on second language learners' argumentative writing.

Based on Kellogg's writing model, Skehan's Limited Attentional Capacity Model (LACM), and Robinson's Cognition Hypothesis, our study investigated the effects of cognitive task complexity on syntactic complexity, lexical complexity, accuracy, fluency, and functional adequacy in Chinese L2 students' argumentative writing, when students were under an online planning condition. Sixty-eight participants from a Chinese university were recruited to complete two writing tasks with task complexity varied in terms of [+ argument elements]. The findings showed that increasing task complexity led to decreased subordination in terms of clauses per T-unit and dependent clauses per clause, increased phrasal elaboration in terms of coordinate phrases per clause, and no changes in mean length of T-unit, T-units per sentence, mean length of clause, and complex nominals per clause. Neither significant differences in accuracy nor fluency were found as a function of increasing task complexity. Detrimental effects on functional adequacy in content, organization, and overall scores were identified with the increases in task complexity. The trade-offs between syntactic and lexical complexity and between syntactic complexity and functional adequacy support the basic principle of Skehan's LACM that human's information processing capacity is limited and Kellogg's claim that learners have a limited central executive capacity in writing. Implications of the results of this research are discussed.

Assessing syntactic and lexicogrammatical use in second language Mandarin writing samples

General indices of syntactic complexity (e.g. mean length of T-unit, clauses per T-Unit) have long been used to measure the writing proficiency of adult language learners (Bulté & Housen, 2012; Norris & Ortega, 2006; Ortega, 2003; Wolfe-Quintero et al., 1998). In contrast, a number of recent studies have focused on measuring adult second language writing proficiency using methods rooted in usage-based theories of language learning. The present study extends previous research (e.g., Kyle & Crossley, 2017) by comparing usage-based and general indices of syntactic and lexicogrammatical use in learners of Mandarin. It also extends previous work by investigating whether meaningful, but non-linear trends exist. To do this, it first compares multiple linear regression models to polynomial models for general and usage-based indices respectively. Then it compares the strongest model for each type of index to determine which is better. Consistent with Kyle and Crossley (2017), it finds that in Mandarin usage-based indices are better predictors of proficiency than general indices and that the frequency of the verb decreases over time while the strength of association between verb and VAC increases. Furthermore, non-linear trajectories were found to exist in general indices while usage-based indices were linear.

Interplay of a Learner’s Regulatory Focus and Genre on Second Language Writing

Many empirical findings of previous studies have suggested a connection between motivational factors and L2 writing. Nonetheless, the impact of motivational factors on the genre-based L2 writing has not gained much attention. The present study explored the extent to which the characteristics of two writing tasks involving different genres interact with a learner’s motivational disposition (regulatory focus) and, further, affect language production of writing. 106 essays collected from 53 university EFL learners were assessed in terms of linguistic complexity and accuracy. 2X2 ANOVA results revealed significant main effects of genre on lexical complexity (lexical variation and MSTTR). More importantly, there were significant interaction effects between genre and regulatory focus on both measures of the syntactic complexity (mean length of T-unit and clause per T-unit) and lexical complexity (lexical density). The findings highlighted the significance of learners’ motivational dispositions in genre writing. Drawing on the findings, some pedagogical suggestions to ensure the effectiveness of writing tasks on L2 development were proposed.

Determinants of Language Impairment in Turkish-Persian Bilingual Children

Background and Aims: Bilingual children are sometimes over-identified with language impairment and sometimes their language impairment under-identified that in either case, proper intervention is not possible. Accurate measurement of bilingual child language development involves assessing both of their languages. The purpose of this study was to identify a set of measures that would discriminate language impairment in bilingual Turkish-Persian children aged 5 to 7 years in Tehran. Materials and Methods: In this descriptive-analytical study, the language sample of 24 bilingual children with no language impairment and 8 bilingual children with language impairment was analyzed according to the linguistic measures of mean length of Terminable-unit, number of total words, number of different words, and number of grammatical errors per Terminable-unit. Children without language impairment were selected from kindergartens and schools by multi-stage cluster sampling method. Language-impaired children were selected by the Speech-Language Pathologist with at least three years of bilingual speech and language pathology services from Tehran-based speech therapy clinics in an accessible manner. There was no significant difference between the groups in terms of nonverbal intelligence, age of exposure and duration of exposure to Persian. Parents responded to questions about their perceptions of their children’s speech and language skills and family history of speech and language problems. Results: Diagnostic analysis indicated that 3 measures discriminated the groups of children with sensitivity 87.5%: the Parent Report Questionnaire, number of total words, and mean length of T-unit. Conclusion: According to the results, Indicators of parental reports and language criteria in identifying the language damage of Turkish-Persian bilingual children can be of diagnostic use for speech and language pathologists.

Focused direct corrective feedback: Effects on the elementary English learners’ written syntactic complexity

This experimental study, using a pretest-treatment-posttest design, compared the effects of focused direct written corrective feedback and additional writing practice on L2 learners’ written syntactic complexity. The participants were 60 Iranian elementary EFL learners, whose L2 proficiency as well as L2 writing syntactic complexity and accuracy were controlled by administering the Oxford Quick Placement Test and a paragraph writing test. They were assigned to two groups: Focused direct corrective feedback (FDCF) and additional writing practice without feedback (No CF). The investigation included five sessions and lasted for three weeks. Every session, each participant wrote a paragraph of descriptive type in class. The experimental group received FDCF, while the control (i.e. No CF) group was provided only with additional writing practice. Lu's (2010) web-based L2 Syntactic Complexity Analyzer was utilized to calculate the five indices of syntactic complexity measures, including mean length of clause (MLC), mean length of sentence (MLS), mean length of T-unit (MLT), clauses per sentence (C/S), and verb phrases per T-unit (VP/T). The MANOVA test revealed no statistically significant difference between the two groups.

초등 영어 교과서의 학년군 내 분책 기준 탐색: 듣기 대화문 의사소통 기능의 계열성을 중심으로

The purpose of this study is to explore inter-grade dividing criteria of the 2015 grade group elementary English textbooks. Elementary English textbooks consist of two grade groups: the 3rd and 4th grade group and the 5th and 6th grade group. L2 Syntactic Complexity Analyzer(L2SCA) is utilized to investigate the dividing criteria of the communicative functions implemented in these textbooks. Subjects of the analysis were the listening dialogues for their structural sequencing of 3rd to 4th graders and 5th to 6th graders separately within their own grade groups. Data were processed and analyzed using SPSS 25.0 and independent sample t tests for inter-grade textbooks for 14 L2SCA statistical indices. The findings are: 6 indices out of the 14 L2SCA statistical indices turn out to be critical for dividing the 2015 grade group elementary English textbooks. The 6 indices are mean clause length, mean sentence length, mean t-unit length, mean complex noun phrasal number per phrase and per t-unit and mean number of verb phrases per t-unit. Based on the findings, it is suggested that a standardized criteria derived from these 6 indices can be provided as an inter-grade dividing criteria of the 2015 grade group elementary English textbooks.

MEASURING LONGITUDINAL WRITING DEVELOPMENT USING INDICES OF SYNTACTIC COMPLEXITY AND SOPHISTICATION

AbstractMeasures of syntactic complexity such as mean length of T-unit have been common measures of language proficiency in studies of second language acquisition. Despite the ubiquity and usefulness of such structure-based measures, they could be complemented with measures based on usage-based theories, which focus on the development of not just syntactic forms but also form-meaning pairs, called constructions (Ellis, 2002). Recent cross-sectional research (Kyle & Crossley, 2017) has indicated that indices related to usage-based characteristics of verb argument construction (VAC) use may be better indicators of writing proficiency than structure-based indices of syntactic complexity. However, because cross-sectional studies can only show general trends across proficiency benchmarks, it is important to test these findings in individuals over time (Lowie & Verspoor, 2019). Thus, this study investigates the developmental trajectories of second language learners of English across two academic years with regard to syntactic complexity and VAC sophistication.

Syntactic complexity measures: variation by genre, grade-level, students’ writing abilities, and writing quality

Syntactic complexity has been recognized as an important construct in writing research, and for the past five decades, many syntactic complexity measures (SCMs) have been examined in numerous studies. This systematic review is the first study of its kind to synthesize 36 studies spanning from 1970 to 2019 by identifying and cataloging all SCMs examined during this period. An analysis was performed on how the use of SCMs varied by genre, grade level, students’ writing ability, and writing quality. Five online databases (Academic Search Premier, ERIC, PsycINFO, Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, and PsycARTICLES) were searched. A total of 48 SCMs were grouped into six categories: T-units and sentences, clauses, phrases, words, combined measures, and other measures. Most studies examined three common SCMs: mean T-unit length, mean number of words per clause, and mean number of clauses per T-unit. The argumentative genre had the highest values for T-unit length and mean number of clauses per T-unit, which could indicate greater sentence complexity. Higher-grade-level students generally construct sentences that are syntactically complex, but comparison between studies was difficult because different studies investigated different SCMs. Although students with higher writing abilities generally construct sentences that are syntactically more complex compared to students with lower writing abilities, the findings are not conclusive, as only a few studies examined this relationship. A similarly inconclusive relationship was found between syntactic complexity and writing quality because only a few studies examined this relationship. More research is needed to examine the relationship between SCMs, writing quality, and genre.

Syntactic complexity development in the writings of EFL learners: Insights from a dependency syntactically-annotated corpus

This study investigates the syntactic complexity, as measured by both large-grained and fine-grained measures, of 410 narrative writings across four writing proficiency levels written by beginner and intermediate L2 English learners. By exploring the differences in syntactic complexity between writings at different proficiency levels, the study is purposed to find out the measures that can best discriminate and predict writing proficiency. The L2 Syntactic Complexity Analyzer and the dependency syntactically-annotated corpus are used respectively to collect the data for large-grained and fine-grained measures. With regard to large-grained measures, it is found that students with higher writing proficiency tend to produce longer language units, more subordinate clauses, more coordinate clauses, and more noun phrases in their writings; mean length of T-unit, mean length of sentence, and dependent clauses per clause can better predict writing proficiency than other traditional large-grained measures. As for fine-grained measures, it is found that three types of subordinate clauses, that is, adverbial clauses, complement clauses and relative clauses, and two types of noun modifiers, that is, prepositional phrases and adjectival relative clauses, occur more frequently in the writings of more proficient learners; the frequency of compound nouns correlates negatively with writing proficiency.

Syntactic complexity and writing quality in assessed first-year L2 writing

This study explores the relationship between syntactic complexity and writing quality in assessed source-based research papers produced by ESL undergraduate writers in a first-year writing course through a combination of holistic and fine-grained measures of complexity. The analysis is based on a corpus of 280 student papers across three grade tiers: high, mid, and low. A one-way MANOVA was used to explore the statistical significance of differences of five commonly used syntactic complexity measures (assessed using Lu’s Second Language Syntactic Complexity Analyzer, 2010) across these grade tiers. Results reveal little variation in clausal subordination and coordination, but statistically significant lower complex nominal densities, mean length of clauses (phrasal measures), and mean length of T-units (global measure) in low-rated papers. Analysis of complex nominal composition using the Stanford Tregex with differences assessed with a one-way MANOVA shows that the highest densities of complex nominal types are present in high-rated papers, with statistical significance in adjectival pre-, prepositional post-, and participle modification, and the lowest densities in low-rated papers. While clausal complexity did not demonstrate a relationship with assessed quality, both global and phrasal complexity features appear to be important components. We conclude with implications for syntactic complexity research and ESL composition pedagogy.

Measuring Syntactic Complexity in L2 Writing Using Fine‐Grained Clausal and Phrasal Indices

AbstractSyntactic complexity is an important measure of second language (L2) writing proficiency (Larsen–Freeman, 1978; Lu, 2011). Large‐grained indices such as the mean length of T‐unit (MLTU) have been used with the most consistency in L2 writing studies (Ortega, 2003). Recently, indices such as MLTU have been criticized, both for the difficulty in interpretation (e.g., Norris & Ortega, 2009) and for a potentially misplaced focus on clausal subordination (e.g., Biber, Gray, & Poonpon, 2011). In this article, we attempt to address both of these criticisms by using traditional indices of syntactic complexity (e.g., MLTU), fine‐grained indices of clausal complexity, and fine‐grained indices of phrasal complexity to predict holistic scores of writing quality. In 4 studies, we used indices of each index type to predict holistic writing quality scores in independent essays on the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). We then used all index types in a combined analysis to predict a holistic writing score. The results indicated that fine‐grained indices of phrasal complexity were better predictors of writing quality than either traditional or fine‐grained clausal indices, though a single fine‐grained index of clausal complexity contributed to the combined model. These results provide some support for Biber et al.’s (2011) claims regarding complexity and academic L2 writing proficiency.

Syntactic Maturity in the English Written texts of Bilingual Students in a Secondary School in Surabaya

This research was aimed to investigate the syntactic maturity and developmentas manifested in the written texts of bilingual students in a secondary school in Surabaya. This study measured the (1) mean T-unit length, (2) subordinate clause index, (3) mean clause length, (4) mean sentence length, (5) main clause coordination index, and (6) the index of erroneous T-units/total T-units as the indicators of the syntactic maturity. However, it was the mean T-unit length that was used as the main indicator of the syntactic maturity because mean T-unit length was considered to be the most reliable index. The data of the syntactic maturity indicators were obtained by analyzing the descriptive texts that the subjects wrote in response to a writing test instruction. The results of this study have shown that the syntactic maturity and development are influenced by the following four dominant factors: (1) the innate acquisition device enabling the students to acquire English and Indonesian almost simultaneously, (2) the amount of English inputs obtained from parents, teachers, English-immersion program schooling, English movies, books and social media have provided the students with a variety of English resources, (3) the abundant opportunities to produce outputs available at home and at schools have enabled the students to use their English and then modify it during the process of English acquisition, and (4) the individual variations.

Assessing syntactic sophistication in L2 writing: A usage-based approach

Over the past 45 years, the construct of syntactic sophistication has been assessed in L2 writing using what Bulté and Housen (2012) refer to as absolute complexity (Lu, 2011; Ortega, 2003; Wolfe-Quintero, Inagaki, & Kim, 1998). However, it has been argued that making inferences about learners based on absolute complexity indices (e.g., mean length of t-unit and mean length of clause) may be difficult, both from practical and theoretical perspectives (Norris & Ortega, 2009). Furthermore, indices of absolute complexity may not align with some prominent theories of language learning such as usage-based theories (e.g., Ellis, 2002a,b). This study introduces a corpus-based approach for measuring syntactic sophistication in L2 writing using a usage-based, frequency-driven perspective. Specifically, novel computational indices related to the frequency of verb argument constructions (VACs) and the strength of association between VACs and the verbs that fill them (i.e., verb–VAC combinations) are developed. These indices are then compared against traditional indices of syntactic complexity (e.g., mean length of T-unit and mean length of clause) with regard to their ability to model one aspect of holistic scores of writing quality in Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) independent essays. Indices related to usage-based theories of syntactic development explained greater variance (R2 = .142) in holistic scores of writing quality than traditional methods of assessing syntactic complexity (R2 = .058). The results have important implications for modeling syntactic sophistication, L2 writing assessment, and AES systems.

L2 WRITING DEVELOPMENT: THE CASE OF TWO HIGH-ACHIEVING AND TWO STRUGGLING COLLEGE-LEVEL STUDENTS

Researchers and language practitioners have long been interested in the quest for theory-based, research-supported constructs that can adequately characterize L2 writing proficiency and development. The ongoing scholarly inquiry in this research area has led to the mounting recognition that complexity, accuracy and fluency (henceforth, CAF) constitute a conceptual framework capable of charting L2 writing proficiency and benchmarking development. Against this background, the present study aims to investigate four college-level semester-one students’ L2 writing development over a time frame of twelve weeks. Couched within the constructivist paradigm, which advocates learner independence, meaningful learning and collaboration, the study examines the extent and nature of the progress that two highachieving L2 students made as compared with two struggling peers with regard to their written productions. On the basis of case study methodology, a thick description is provided for each student on account of his measurable progress as assessed by theoretically motivated indices of complexity and accuracy. The paper also explores the time spent on online Moodle activities by the four participants to ascertain whether or not a relationship existed with the progress made. Complexity was measured by mean length of t-unit, mean length of clause and number of clauses per t-unit; accuracy was measured by mean number of error-free t-units and the ratio of error-free t-units to total number of t-units. The writing program in which the participants were engaged was based on the use of Moodle as a platform where students have access to myriad supplementary materials including website links, videos, PowerPoint slides, book chapters and exercises handouts. They were also required to post their written assignments in the Moodle-hosted blog and to participate in forums designed for the exchange of feedback. The implications of the results for L2 writing instruction are discussed.

Syntactic Characteristics in Narratives of Children With and Without Hearing Loss on Two Narrative Production Conditions

The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of the narrative production condition and topics in children with and without hearing loss. The participants were 9 children using hearing aids or cochlear implant who had been educated in the mainstreamed setting, and 9 children having normal hearing ranged between 9 and 11 years of age. All participants scored above –1 SD on the standardized language test and narrative comprehension assessment. Narrative data was collected on the two conditions; story retelling and story generation. Each condition had two topics, which were different in terms of the familiarity to children. Collected data were analyzed in the number of T-unit, Mean Length of T-unit in morphemes (MLTm), Subordinate Index (SI), the type of independent clause, and grammatical error. The results showed that there was no difference between groups on the syntactic characteristics, but their performances were different according to the narrative production conditions, story modeled to children, and the topics. The hearing loss group was more sensitive to the condition for the data collection. It suggests that the narrative condition, model story, and topics should be considered when collecting narrative data as well as analyze and interprete the data, especially for the hearing impaired group.

Measuring syntactic complexity in L2 pragmatic production: Investigating relationships among pragmatics, grammar, and proficiency

The study examines relationships among pragmatics, grammar, and proficiency by comparing the syntactic complexity of ESL learners' written pragmatic production across two independent criterion measures: proficiency and pragmatic performance. Participants were 40 ESL learners who completed pragmatic assessment tasks. Pragmatic competence was assessed by three trained raters using task-dependent analytical rating criteria. Syntactic complexity was assessed using three measures: (a) global complexity from mean length of T-unit, (b) phrasal-level complexity from mean length of clause, and (c) subordination complexity from mean number of clauses per T-unit. The results showed that learners did not possess concomitant written pragmatic competence according to their proficiency levels. The global complexity measure was general enough to differentiate levels in both proficiency and pragmatic performance, compared to phrasal-level and subordination complexity. Yet, the magnitudes of the three complexity measures differences between pragmatic performance levels were more noticeable, compared to those between proficiency levels. Except for phrasal-level complexity, learners' pragmatic performances were more highly correlated with syntactic complexity of their pragmatic production than their proficiency levels. Pragmatically advanced learners produced longer utterances, more complex subclausal structures at the phrasal level, and more subordination, suggesting the crucial roles played by syntactically complex structures in expressing pragmatic functions.