Mean Household Size Research Articles

EFFECTS OF HEALTH EXPENDITURE ON FOOD SECURITY STATUS OF RURAL HOUSEHOLDS IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA

The study assessed the effect of health expenditure on the food security status of rural households in Ogun State, Nigeria. Multistage sampling procedure was used to select 120 rural households in the study area. Data was collected from the respondents with the aid of a semi-structured questionnaire complemented with an interview guide. Descriptive statistics, food security index, cost of illness procedure and binary logit regression model were the analytical techniques used for data analysis. Findings from the study revealed that majority (79.2%) of the respondent were male, married (90.8%), with a mean household size of 5 persons. Also, the mean age of the respondents was found to be 54 years with most of them involved in farming as their major occupation. Findings also revealed that majority of the rural households suffered from various illnesses such as malaria, waist/back pain, fever, high blood pressure, rheumatism and other illnesses with an average estimated cost of illness (₦45, 973.68 per month). The results of the food security status of the rural households revealed that a higher percentage (53.3%) of the rural households were food insecure. Factors found to significantly affect the food security status of the rural households were cost of illness (p<0.1) and other socio-economic variables such as education (p<0.1), income (p<0.05) and sex of the household head (p<0.01). Therefore, this study recommends that government should subsidize the cost of drugs and other medical expenses for poor households particularly those in the rural areas in order to reduce their financial burden on health care and increase their economic access to food.

Socioeconomic characteristics of organic poultry farmers in Afikpo north local government area

The study was conducted to determine the socio- economic of organic poultry farmers in Afikpo North Local Government Area, Ebonyi State. Data collected using structured questionnaire from 80 randomly selected farmers were analyzed using descriptive statistical tools: mean, frequency, percentage and Standard deviation. The result showed that majority (55.00%) of the farmers were female, (56.25%) were married, tertiary education (47.50%). The mean household size was 5 persons, membership of social organization (68.75%). It further revealed that over seventy percent of the farmers (73.75%) had up to 1-10 years farming experience. The study concluded that despite the wide attention received by organic broiler production in Afikpo, it has been constrained by some factors like lack of proper awareness,technical knowhow and preference of old practice to new practice. It is recommended that research institutes should organize extensive and periodic trainings for the farmers within Afikpo North Local government area to teach them the use of the organic recipes on poultry meat and egg production.Also enlightenment campaign should be initiated to sensitize farmers on the benefits of the use of organic recipes on broiler production.

FACTORS INFLUENCING UTILIZATION OF AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGIES TRANSFER AMONG PARTICIPANTS OF ADOPTED VILLAGE EXTENSION PROJECT IN KADUNA AND NIGER STATE, NIGERIA

The study assessed the factors influencing utilization of agricultural technologies transfer among participants of Adopted Village Extension Project (AVEP) in Kaduna and Niger State, Nigeria. A Multi-stage sampling procedure was employed to select 246 participants of AVEP for the study comprising of 131 and 115 participants from Kaduna and Niger States, respectively. Primary data were collected with the aid of structured questionnaire complemented with an interview schedule. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Technology Adoption Index (TAI) and Tobit regression analysis. The results reveal that the mean age of the participants in Kaduna and Niger States were 38 and 31 years, with a mean household size of 7 and 5 people, and mean farming experience of 14 and 10 years, respectively. The various agricultural technologies transferred to participants in Kaduna State among crop production were storage techniques (83.5%), improved seeds (80.0%) and weed management techniques (78.3%) ranked 1st, 2nd and 3rd respectively, while participants in Niger State indicated improved seed (90.1%), weed management techniques (83.2%) and planting techniques (78.6%) ranked 1st, 2nd and 3rd respectively. More so, among the livestock production technologies transferred to participants in Kaduna State were improved animal breeds (8706%), hybrid broilers (80.0%) and improved feed formulation (80.0%) ranked 1st and 2nd, respectively, while participants in Niger State indicated improved animal breeds (92.4%), hybrid broilers (82.4%) and hybrid layers (74.1%) ranked 1st, 2nd and 3rd, respectively. Respondents’ age (-2.05; p<0.05), education (1.76; p<0.10), awareness of technology (2.16; p<0.05), compatibility (4.35; p<0.01), relative advantage (1.98; p<0.10) and cost (-3.22; p<0.01) influences participants’ utilization of agricultural technologies transferred through AVEP in Kaduna State, while age (-2.41; p<0.05), education (2.02; p<0.05), farm size (2.54; P<0.01), awareness of technology (2.09; p<0.05), compatibility (3.12; p<0.01), relative advantage (1.74; p<0.10) and cost (-2.97; p<0.01) influences participants’ utilization of agricultural technologies transferred through AVEP in Niger State. The study concluded that socio-economic and institutional factors highlighted above significantly influences utilization of agricultural technologies by the respondents in the study area. It was therefore recommended that, for efficient transfer of agricultural technologies, there is need for increased sensitization by the research institutes on relative advantages of technologies adoption and utilization for greater output and income.

PERCEIVED EFFECT OF PALM OIL COOPERATIVES IN CREDIT DELIVERY TO MEMBERS IN AKWA IBOM STATE

The study assessed the perceived effect of palm oil cooperatives in credit delivery to members in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Specifically, the study described the socio-economic characteristics of the cooperators, examined the perceived effect of cooperatives on economic activities of members, assessed the benefits members derived from cooperative societies, and examined the challenges faced by the cooperators. Sample size of 201 palm oil cooperators were randomly selected using Taro Yamane formula from the list of palm oil cooperative societies in the study area. Data collected were analyzed using percentages, mean, Pearson product-moment correlation, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and t-test. The finding shows mean age of cooperators was 46.2 years, the majority (69.2%) were female, married (71.6%), a larger portion (97.0%) had formal education. The mean household size, farming experience and annual income were 6 persons, 9 years and N159,145 respectively. The results showed a positive and significant relationship between cooperative societies and the economic activities of members. Also, the cooperative societies benefit their members by having access to loans. Challenges affecting the cooperative were grouped into socio-economic, organizational and institutional problems. The study recommended among others; that the organization seek better strategies of building their capital, more avenues of internally generated revenue should be exploited to improve on their capital formation rates. Moreso, cooperatives should devise better channel of credit delivery to members in terms of the ability to sustain the loan delivery function.

MUSHROOM PRODUCTION BY SMALL-SCALE FARMERS: AN APPROACH TO ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT AND REDUCING HUNGER AMONG RURAL HOUSEHOLDS IN NORTH CENTRAL NIGERIA

The study was carried out to investigate mushroom production by small-scale farmers as an approach to economic empowerment and reducing hunger among rural households in North Central Nigeria. The study used 389 respondents sampled through multi-stage sampling technique from three States and the Federal Capital Territory. Descriptive and inferential statistics (Binary logit regression model and Binomial test) were used to analyse the data. Results showed that the majority of the respondents were males (59.13%), married (53.47%), with the average age of 37.37 years, a mean household size of five persons and a mean educational level of 14years. They were mostly into farming (32.90%) and at full- time level (77.63%). The farmers earned an average annual income of N360,539.85 and N426,092.55 before and after adding mushroom to their farming activities and were satisfied with the proceeds from mushroom production. Strategies such as establishing and participating in cooperative groups (mean = 3.55), development of improved mushroom growing materials (mean = 3.40) and extension agents training of farmers on input use for mushroom production (mean = 3.30) were advocated to increase mushroom production. Socio-demographic characteristics such as gender, marital status, age, educational level, household size and farm status positively influence the income earned by farmers from mushroom production. It is recommended that there is need for a robust extension programme to be carried out on farmers training on the use of inputs.

ANALYSIS OF SWEET POTATO PRODUCTION IN EBONYI STATE, NIGERIA

This paper analyzed sweet potato production in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Multi-stage and proportionate sampling methods were used to collect two hundred and one sweet potato farmers for the study. Data were collected using structured questionnaire and analyzed using descriptive such as frequency and percentages and inferential statistics such as Ordinary Least Square regression model. Results showed that 74.13% of the sweet potato farmers were female with mean age of 38years, mean educational level of 12years with 96.52% of them were married having a mean household size of 8persons. Farm size, quantity of improved sweet potato varieties planted, labour and weeding were significant at 1% and 5% respectively and were positively related to vine yield while farm size, quantity of improved sweet potato varieties planted, fertilizer application and insecticide were significant at 1% and 5% respectively and were positively related to root yield. The production of sweet potato in Ebonyi state was affected by some production factors which causes low yield in the vine and root of sweet potato. Therefore, Organization of field days and farmers’ training on sweet potato production as well as procurement and distribution of improved varieties to farmers are effective strategies for stimulating adoption of the technologies.

SSESSMENT OF FACTORS INFLUENCING ADOPTION OF NARICT NEEM ORGANIC FERTILIZER AMONG SMALLHOLDER TOMATO FARMERS IN KADUNA STATE, NIGERIA

This study was designed to assess smallholder tomato farmer’s level of awareness of NARICT neem organic fertilizer as well as to determine the factors influencing its adoption by the smallholder tomato farmers in the study area. Four Local Government Areas (LGAs) were randomly selected from the four ADP zones of the state. One village was randomly selected from each of the four selected LGAs and then 11% of the tomato farmers from each of the four villages were randomly selected to arrive at the sample size of three hundred and fifty (350) tomato formers. Both inferential and descriptive statistics were used in the analysis of data. The mean age of respondents was found to be 42yrs for adopters and 35yrs for non-adopters, 96.9% were males for adopters and 22.1% are females for non-adopters respectively. The mean household size for the non-adopters was 11 persons and 8 persons for non-adopters. 94.3% of the interviewed farmers were aware of the NARICT neem organic fertilizer and 5.7% are not aware of the NARICT neem organic fertilizer. It was therefore concluded that even though about 54.3% of the respondents are aware of NARICT neem fertilizer, only about 45.7 % use it. Also, it was found out that the socio-economic and Institutional characteristics of the farmers have significant influence on the adoption of NARICT neem organic fertilizer. The result shows that socio economic factors such as farming experience, educational level, farm size, age and source of credit significantly influence adoption of the fertilizer...

Effects of commercialization on food security status of cassava producing households in Abia state, Nigeria

The study examined effects of commercialization on food security status of cassava producers in Abia State, Nigeria. Specifically the study described the socio-economic characteristics of the cassava producers; examined the level of cassava commercialization; estimated mean per capita monthly food expenditure of cassava producing households; assessed the food security status of the cassava producing households; ascertained effect of commercialization on the food security status of the respondents and identified the constrained to commercialization. A multi-stage sampling procedure was employed to select 96 respondents needed for the study. Data analysis was carried out using descriptive and inferential tools such as mean, frequencies, percentage, percentage household commercialization index and food security index. Results showed that the mean age of cassava producing household head was 35.3years. Cumulatively, 93.3% of cassava producing household head had formal education ranging from primary school to secondary with mean household size of 7 persons. Dominant number of the cassava farmers indicated access to credit (75.6%) with mean farm size of 1.9ha and mean farming experience of 9.9years. The result also showed a mean commercialization index of 0.646970. The study area could be regarded as food insecure given that only 35.00% of the households were food secure. The result further indicated that there was a positive relationship between commercialization level and food security in the area. However, instability in government policy (86.67%) and lack of collateral required securing loan (72.22 were major constraints to cassava commercialization in the study area. The study concluded that the proportion of food insecure households is more than the food secure households. Therefore, agricultural policies that promote access of farmers to land and other farm inputs that can lead to increased farm household productivity and income should be implemented.

Analysis to determine the domestic water usage in Yolde - Pate Area of Yola South Local Government Area of Adamawa State Nigeria

This research study presents findings of the analysis of determining the domestic water usage in Yolde-Pate area of Yola South LGA of Adamawa State Nigeria. During the recce survey and final survey; the sources of domestic water were identified and mapped out in the study area which include: 127 Industrial borehole, 16 hand-pumps, 6 well water and 1 public tap. Domestic water usage moves in hand with its source and accessibility this is where Nearest Neighbor Analysis NNA was used and its summary depicts the following; z-score of 0.205792265731; which means the pattern does not appear to be significantly different than random; which is fairly recommendable. Mean Distance is 51.1643 Meters, Neighbor Ratio is 1.024, and p-value: 0.836953. This was achieved due to the highly precision DGPS used in determining the spatial positions of each of the 150 XYZ points of each water source location and digitally mapping out the whole study area. Then 600 well-structured questionnaires that were randomly distributed within the study area with the respondent’s responses largely related to the analysis of determining domestic water usage were retrieved and analyzed with the End User Analysis (EUA)Technique. The results show that the total volume of water used daily per house ranges from 52,247 to 78,856 liters for each house hold with a range of 54.53liters to 67.69 liters of water consumption per individual in a day; which fall short of WHO standard of 120 liters. However the EUA based on the population density of the study area reveals: first for the high density areas, which has 3 wards Gadawalowol Yolde Patte ward, Jalingo Yolde Patte ward and Chaka Midari ward with a mean population of 1187, mean household size of 4.67 individuals, 71500 liters as the mean total of consume water daily, 60.35 as the mean per capita water consumption per day individually while standard still remains 120 liters and the mean total of daily demand is 142,440 liters; which shows deficit of what is needed. For the medium density areas with an average population of 1093 which are made up of 2 wards depicts 61100 liters as the mean total of water consumed daily by each household, 55.86 liters was consumed by an individual with a daily mean demand of 131,160 liters. While the low-density areas which mainly is occupied by the Sabonpegi Yolde Patte ward residence has a population of 876, total water consumption per household of 52,247liters, Per Capita Water Consumption (liters per day) is 59,64liters while its water daily demand is 105 120 liters; similarly, a shortage of what is demanded and WHO standard exist also in the medium and low-density areas. Recommendations were then spelt out to improve water consumption and usage with well design accessibility structure to improve well-being of the people in this study area.

Characteristics of Adolescents with and without a Family History of Substance Use Disorder from a Minority Cohort.

Family history (FH+) of substance use disorder (SUD) is an established risk factor for offspring SUD. The extent to which offspring psychological traits or the family environment, each of which may be relevant to familial transmission of SUD risk, vary by FH+ in socioeconomically disadvantaged populations is less clear. We compared the family/social environmental and psychological characteristics of 73 FH+ and 69 FH- youth ages 12-16, from a study of parental criminal justice system involvement in a primarily low-income, minority urban population. A latent profile analysis (LPA) empirically identified groups of subjects with similar psychological characteristics, which were then compared by FH+. FH+ youths were found to have greater mean household size, greater parental psychological aggression, and a higher mean number of adverse childhood experiences, even without considering parental SUD. FH+ individuals had lower report card grades according to parental report and were more likely to have a history of externalizing disorders than FH- individuals. However, FH+ was not significantly associated with many psychological characteristics or with the class membership from the LPA. In conclusion, among a population of low-income, minority urban youth, FH+ was associated with differences in the family environment and only subtle differences in individual psychological characteristics.

Factors influencing the allocative efficiency of the small-scale tomato (Lycopersicum species) production in Kaduna state, Nigeria: implications for food security and resource management

This study evaluated factors influencing the allocative efficiency of the small-scale tomato (Lycopersicum species) production in Kaduna State, Nigeria: implications for food security and resource management. A multi-stage sampling technique was used to select 120 small-scale tomato farmers. The data from primary sources was collected with the help of a well-structured and well-designed questionnaire. This data was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The result indicates that the mean age of the small-scale tomato resource farmers is 46 years old; the mean household size of the respondents is 7 persons, while the mean resource farm size is 1.17 ha. The minimum and the maximum allocative efficiency scores of the tomato farmers are 0.30 and 0.93 respectively. The results of the profitability analysis indicate that the tomato production is profitable with a gross margin and a net farm income of N550, 960 per ha and N497, 190 respectively. The gross margin and operating ratios are 0.69 and 0.28 respectively. The resource inputs and socio-economic factors influencing the allocative efficiency of tomato production are the following: age, farm size, household size, gender, marital status, level of education, access to extension services, and membership in a cooperative organization. The study recommends that farmers should be provided with the following resource inputs: improved seeds, chemicals, fertilizer inputs, credit facilities and extension services in order to reduce resource wastages, increase efficiency and productivity. Keywords: allocative efficiency, small-scale tomato production, resource management, food security, Kaduna State, Nigeria

Feed Milling Industries Resilience amid COVID-19 in Ekiti State Nigeria

This study analyzed the resilience strategies for small-scale feed milling industries, learning from the COVID-19 pandemic in Ekiti State, Nigeria. 215 small scale feed mills industries were selected by multistage sampling procedure. Descriptive statistics, gross margin and regression analysis were used for the analysis of data collected. Results revealed that the mean age for the respondents was 40.45 year. In addition, 91.58% of the feed millers were married while 8.42% were single with a mean household size of 6. 13 years was the mean number of years spent in school. With respect to experience, the respondents had 11 years of feed milling experience. Gross margin results indicated that income after COVID-19 is more than during the COVID-19 showing an N168,330.00 significant (p<0.001) difference indicating that COVID-19 had great consequences on the income. The regression result revealed that sex (p<0.001), marital status (p<0.010), household size (p<0.001), education (p<0.001) and experience (p<0.005) were feed mill profitability determining factors in the study area. Constraints faced during COVID-19 are that lockdown due to COVID-19 hindered operational activities of feed mill (65.26%), COVID-19 causes a total increase in the price of inputs (66.32), reduction in the sales of feeds (69.29%), reduction in work force (65.26%), and loss of raw materials through spoilage (66.32%). The study recommended that feed millers should collaborate with local farmers for the supply of materials at lesser price, rather than buying highcost foreign materials.

Neighbourhood factors and tuberculosis incidence in Cape Town: A negative binomial regression and spatial analysis.

Although the link between poverty and tuberculosis (TB) is widely recognised, limited studies have investigated the association between neighbourhood factors and TB incidence. Since the factors influencing different episodes of TB might be different, this study focused on the first episode of TB disease (first-episode TB). All first episodes in previously linked and geocoded TB notification data from 2007 to 2015 in Cape Town, South Africa, were aggregated at the neighbourhood level and merged with the 2011 census data. We conducted an ecological study to assess the association between neighbourhood incidence of first-episode TB and neighbourhood factors (total TB burden [all episodes] in the previous year, socioeconomic index, mean household size, mean age, and percentage males) using a negative binomial regression. We also examined the presence of hotspots in neighbourhood TB incidence with the Global Moran's I statistic and assessed spatial dependency in the association between neighbourhood factors and TB incidence using a spatial lag model. The study included 684 neighbourhoods with a median first-episode TB incidence rate of 114 (IQR: 0-345) per 100,000 people. We found lower neighbourhood socioeconomic index (SEI), higher neighbourhood total TB burden, lower neighbourhood mean household size, and lower neighbourhood mean age were associated with increased neighbourhood first-episode TB incidence. Our findings revealed a hotspot of first-episode TB incidence in Cape Town and evidence of spatial dependency in the association between neighbourhood factors and TB incidence. Neighbourhood TB burden and SEI were associated with first-episode TB incidence, and there was spatial dependency in this association. Our findings can inform targeted interventions to reduce TB in high-risk neighbourhoods, thereby reducing health disparities and promoting health equity.

Determinants of factors affecting farmer’s participation in exchange labour in Olamaboro Local Government Area of Kogi State, Nigeria

The study examined the determinants of exchange labour participation in Olamaboro Local Government Area of Kogi State, Nigeria. A purposive and simple random sampling of the respondents was used with descriptive statistics such as frequency distribution, tables, percentages, mean and probit models as tools of analysis. Data for the study was collected from primary sources through the use of a well-structured questionnaire to elicit information from the respondents. The results on socio-economic characteristics revealed that the mean age of participants in exchange labour was 34 years and mostly males (60.83%). Most were of active age, married and mean household size of 4 persons, they had one form of education or the other (89.17%). They were small-scale farmers with a mean farm size of 2 hectares and mean exchange labour farming experience of 6 years. Access to extension contact is low and the farmers have an annual farm income of N137,837.5. The results of the probit model analysis revealed that access to credit and marital status were the significant variables that influence the probability of participation in exchange labour. These have coefficients that were significant at 5 and 10% level of probability respectively. The study concludes that exchange labour could be a means of increasing the probability of labour through adequate credit. It was recommended that exchange labour group members should create awareness to rural farmers for more membership, government support in the form of credit to boost production and farm income is important.

IMPACT OF ADOPTION OF IMPROVED RICE PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES ON YIELD AND INCOME OF COOPERATIVE SOCIETIES’ FARMERS IN BAUCHI AND GOMBE STATES, NIGERIA

The study was examined the impact of adoption of improved rice production technologies on yield and income of cooperative societies’ farmers in Bauchi and Gombe States, Nigeria. A multi-stage sampling procedure was used to select 524 respondents comprising of 262 members and 262 non-members from both States. Data were collected using structured questionnaires and analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The results showed that, the mean age of the respondents was 41years for the members and non-members in Bauchi State, while 41 and 42 years were the mean age in Gombe State for both categories of the respondents respectively, with the mean farming experience of 7 and 12 years in Bauchi State, while 9 and 10 years in Gombe State for both the members and non-members respectively. The results showed a significant difference (P<0.05) between the mean household size among members and non-members in Bauchi State as the calculated Z-value (2.94) is higher than the tabulated Z-value (1.96). The trend was also similar in Gombe State where there was a significant difference (P<0.05) between the mean household size among members and non-members as the calculated Z-value (2.70) is also higher than the tabulated Z-value (1.96). The results showed no significant difference (P<0.05) between the mean farm size among members and non-members in Bauchi State as the calculated Z-value (0.63) is lower than the tabulated Z-value (1.96). The trend wasn’t similar in Gombe State which showed a significant difference (P<0.05) between the mean farm size among members and non-members as the calculated Z-value (4.80) is higher than the tabulated Z-value (1.96). education level, sex and rice farming experience were found to be positively significant (P<0.001) while extension visit was found to be positively significant (P<0.05) in predisposing adoption improved rice production technologies (IRPTs) among members and non-members of rice cooperative societies in the study area. The results from the Nearest Neighbor Matching (NNM), radius Matching Method (RMM), Stratification Method (SM) and Kernel Matching Method (KMM) indicate that the adoption of IRPTs had significant positive impact on income and yield among members compared to non-members (P˂0.01). It was concluded that the adoption IRPTs have significant impact on yield and income of members of cooperatives societies compared to their counterparts. The study therefore recommends that, farmers should form formidable cooperative societies so as to enjoy economies of scale in pooling their resources to purchase farm inputs.

EXTENSION WORKERS UTILIZATION OF E-EXTENSION IN DISSEMINATION OF AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY IN GOMBE STATE, NIGERIA

The study assessed extension workers’ utilization of E-extension in the dissemination of agricultural technologies in Gombe State, Nigeria. A total of 142 respondents were selected and data were collected using structured questionnaire. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. The result revealed that the mean age of the respondents was 42.5 years. Majority (73.2%) of the respondents were males and most (98.6%) of them were married. The result indicated that respondents had mean household size of 5 persons and (88.9%) of them had tertiary education. Furthermore, the mean working experience of the respondents was 10.0 Years. The major e-resource tools used in the dissemination of agricultural technologies were mobile phone ( = 2.86), whatsApp ( = 2.35) and radio ( = 2.01). The constraints faced by respondents in e-extension utilization were poor and unstable power supply (1st), poor attitude of extension workers toward e-resource tools usage (2nd) and inadequate facilities (3rd). The study concluded that extension workers were relatively using e-resource tools such as radio, mobile phone and television in the dissemination of agricultural technology. The study recommended that government and other development agencies should provide and improve rural electricity and telecommunication network.

EFFECTS OF RURAL-URBAN YOUTHS MIGRATION ON MAJOR CEREAL CROPS PRODUCTION IN KWARA STATE, NIGERIA.

The study analyzed the effects of rural-urban youth migration on major cereal crops production in Kwara State, Nigeria. A multi-stage sampling technique was used to select 195 respondents that were proportionately drawn from four (4) zones and of the study area. Data were collected through the use of well-structured questionnaire and analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. The result show that majority (55.4%) the of respondents fell within the age bracket of 18-25 years with mean of 32 years and majority (69.7%) were males and married (50.3%) with a mean household size of 5.3 persons. Most of the respondent (60.0%) had farming as a primary occupation. Majority (57.4%) of the respondent were pushed to migrate by poverty, while, more than half (57.7%) of the respondents were pushed to migrate due to absence of social amenities in rural areas. The results of the Poisson regression revealed that age was negatively significant (P<0.01) and sex, marital status, household size, level of education, farming experience and access to credit were positively significant at (P<0.01) in influencing rural-urban migration. The findings also reveal that, annual income was positive and significant (P<0.01) in influencing youth rural-urban migration. The study concluded that age, sex, marital status, household size, level of education, farming experience, annual income and access to credit were the factors influencing youth rural-urban migration in the study area. The study therefore, recommended adequate physical and social infrastructure such as good roads, electricity, schools and hospitals should be put in place in rural areas by Kwara State government in order to encourage youths to remain in agriculture.

Factors affecting Changing Gender roles among farm families in Osun State, Nigeria

Gender roles are assumptions that individuals, and the general public have of people based on their biological characteristics. These assumptions are usually as a result of values and beliefs of the society. In spite of the global war against gender inequalities, many societies in Africa are structured in a way that socio-cultural norms form the basis of gender roles. This reflects on many households where men are typically favoured than women in gender roles. However, changing trends across the world has impacted on many areas of society. Therefore, the study assessed the key factors influencing changing gender roles among farm families in Osun State, Nigeria. Data were collected through interview schedule. Multi-stage sampling technique was used to select twenty (20) rural farming households from eight Local Government Areas in the State. Data were described and analyzed using percentage, mean and Pearson product moment correlation. Findings revealed a mean age of 43.5 ± 11.73 years. The mean household size was 6.9±1.7 persons. Access to education and resources (p =0.001) and economic opportunities (p = 0.002). Likewise, environmental factors generally had significant influence on changing gender roles (p = 0.01). This study points to the importance of ensuring that the fair share of responsibilities with regards to gender roles in society is constantly promoted and highlights of their contributions is well recognized.

Parenting Approaches on Children Food Uptake and Nutrition Status in Kiambu County, Kenya

Parental use of reward and punishment is a key to reinforcement or deterrence of food choices among children an aspect that affects nutritional status throughout an individual’s life span. Kenya has a population of 47,564,296 people according to demographic survey of Kenya 2019, of whom 1.4 % are school-going children aged 6-years in Juja Sub-County of Kiambu, (Kenya National Beural of Statistics,2019). Cross-sectional analytical research design was adopted on 384 parent-child pairs, who were disproportionately sampled. Researcher-administered questionnaires were used to collect data. SРSS software version 26.0 was used to analyse the data with significance p<.05. Anthropometry data was analysed using WHO Anthro-Plus Survey Analyzer and compared to BMI-for-age (BAZ), weight-for-age (WAZ) and height-for-age (HAZ) Scores for the target population. Pearson’s correlation (r) was used to establish association. Boys were 48.0% while girls were 52.0% with a mean age of 6.4± 0.1. Almost half the index children (45.1%) were born first. Mean household size was 5.0± 1.66 with maternal mean age at 34± 4.9 years and that of the fathers at 39± 4.8 years. The majority of mothers (73.0%) and fathers (76.1%) had tertiary level of education with more fathers than the mothers in the formal sector of employment, with a higher income. All (100%) children reported being rewarded by receiving incentives like praise words (60.1%), while majority of them (92.0%) reported being punished in multiple ways by the mothers when they refused to feed yet a third of fathers (61.0%) praised and gifted their children to feed. Prevalence of stunting (6.9%), underweight (7.1%), wasting (7.2%), overweight (16.4%) and obesity (11.7%) was observed in the study population. A positive strong significant relationship (p=0.05, x2=5.2) between age of the mothers and punishment was noted, also shouting threats, grounding, inflicting pain & withdrawal of privileges (p=0.05, x2=9.6) was common among the married mothers. More parents with tertiary education (74.6%) and higher incomes (40.5%) gifted and gave special permissions which had a stronger positive relationship to food choices (p=0.06, x2=4.33) and nutritional status (p=0.04, x2=5.9). Food choices had a strong positive relationship to nutritional status (p=0.05) and so did dietary diversity (p=0.6). Majority of the parents reported that the demographic characteristics (83.8%) and Socio-economic characteristics (90.7%) affected their food choices as a household. Almost all mothers (98.8%) and more than half of the fathers (55.4%) felt that rewarding and punishing the study children in relation to food had an effect on their food choices and approaches

Employer-Sponsored Health Insurance Premium Cost Growth and Its Association With Earnings Inequality Among US Families

Costs of employer-sponsored health care benefits have increased faster than workers' wages for several decades, with important implications for disparities in earnings and wage stagnation. To quantify how growth in employer-sponsored health insurance (ESI) premiums may have been associated with reduced annual wages, disparities in earnings by race and ethnicity and wage level, and wage stagnation among US families with ESI. In this economic evaluation, serial cross-sectional analyses were performed of US families receiving ESI from 1988 to 2019 based on data from the Consumer Expenditure Survey, Kaiser Employer Health Benefits Survey, US Census Bureau's Current Population Survey, and federal payroll taxation rates. Statistical analysis was conducted from February 2022 to July 2023. Percentage of annual compensation associated with health care premiums (after accounting for tax deductibility) and lost wages associated with growth in cost of premiums from 1989 to 2019 based on 1988 compensation. To assess disparities, analyses were stratified by race and ethnicity and wage level. In 1988, 44.7 million individuals (head of household: mean [SD] age, 43.3 [13.1] years; 30.1% were female; and 2.4% identified as Asian, 6.2% as Hispanic, 8.6% as non-Hispanic Black, and 82.8% as non-Hispanic White) were covered by ESI family plans; this number remained similar in 2019 at 44.8 million individuals (head of household: mean [SD] age, 47.1 [12.9] years; 41.3% were female; and 1.3% identified as Asian, 9.9% as Hispanic, 9.9% as non-Hispanic Black, and 78.9% as non-Hispanic White). In 1988, the mean (SD) household size was 3.3 (1.3) people, and in 2019, it was 3.4 (1.3) people. If ESI costs had remained at the same proportion of the 1988 average compensation package, then in 2019, the median US family with ESI could have earned $8774 (95% CI, $8354-$9195) more in annual wages. During all 32 years, health care premiums as a percentage of compensation were greater for non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic families than for non-Hispanic White families. By 2019, 13.8% (95% CI, 13.5%-14.1%) of compensation among non-Hispanic White families with ESI went to premium costs compared with 19.2% (95% CI, 18.8%-19.7%) among non-Hispanic Black families and 19.8% (19.3%-20.3%) among Hispanic families with ESI. In 2019, health care premiums as a percentage of compensation at the 95th percentile of earnings for families with ESI were 3.9% (95% CI, 3.8%-4.0%) compared with 28.5% (95% CI, 27.8%-29.2%) at the 20th percentile of earnings. From 1988 to 2019, the mean cumulative lost earnings associated with growth in health care premiums for the median US family with ESI was $125 340 (95% CI, $120 155-$130 525) in 2019 dollars, 4.7% of earnings over the 32-year period. This economic evaluation of US families receiving ESI suggests that 3 decades of increasing health care premiums were likely associated with reduced annual earnings and increased earnings inequality by race and ethnicity and wage level and were meaningfully associated with wage stagnation.