Mean Herd Size Research Articles

Seasonal changes in herd size and time budget of springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) in southern Namibia

AbstractSpringbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) is an understudied species with a dearth of scientific work having been conducted, especially so for the Nama‐Karoo vegetation type, in southern Namibia. We studied variations in herd composition and time budget of springbok by direct observations during a dry and wet season in southern Namibia and found significant differences (p < 0.001) in mean herd size between the dry and wet seasons. Herd size decreased from early morning to late afternoon during the dry season (p = 0.037) but not the wet season (p = 0.362). Springbok spent more time browsing during the dry season compared to the wet season (p < 0.001) when they spent more time grazing (p < 0.001). However, there was no significant difference in the time springbok spent walking between the two seasons (p = 0.181). Other energy‐intensive activities such as grooming and running increased during the wet season (p < 0.001) due to favourable environmental conditions, breeding season and possibly an increase in parasite load.

Situation Analysis and Recommendations for the Biosecurity Status of Dairy Farms in Punjab, India: A Cross-Sectional Survey.

Farm biosecurity is an important herd management strategy to assure infection prevention and animal health. The present study aimed to evaluate the implementation of biosecurity measures on dairy farms in Punjab, India, using the standardized Biocheck.UGent™ scoring system. Convenience sampling was used to select 94 dairy farms, comprising both cattle and buffaloes, with a mean herd size of 74.8 animals. The study found that the mean external and internal biosecurity scores for the selected dairy farms were 45.4% and 43.7%, respectively. Among the subcategories, the highest external biosecurity score was observed for 'vermin control and other animals' (63%), and the highest internal biosecurity score was observed for 'adult cattle management' (76.6%). Whereas the lowest score for external biosecurity was observed for 'purchase and reproduction' (30.6%), and the lowest score for internal biosecurity was observed for 'health management' (33.6%). The overall mean biosecurity score of the present study was 44.8%, which was lower than the overall mean global score of 52%. The correlation analysis indicated a positive correlation between herd size and overall biosecurity scores, indicating that larger farms had, on average, higher biosecurity scores. Based on these results, it can be concluded that the implementation of biosecurity measures on dairy farms in Punjab needs improvement, especially in the subcategories of 'purchase and reproduction' and 'health management'. Further research to identify the factors influencing the implementation of biosecurity measures on dairy farms in the region is recommended.

Breeding objectives and selection criteria of farmers keeping indigenous cattle populations in north-west Ethiopia

ABSTRACT This study was conducted to identify farmers’ breeding objectives and trait preferences for indigenous cattle in north-west Ethiopia. Multistage purposive and random sampling techniques were used to select study districts, and smallholder farmers. The required data were collected through structured questionnaires from 320 households, personal observations, and focus group discussions. The chi-square (χ2) test, least squares mean, and ranking index were statistical methods used for data analysis. The least squares mean analysis showed a difference (p < 0.001) and the mean herd size was 10.9 heads. Based on ranking index results, milk production (0.35) and draught power (0.25) were the main cattle production purpose/objectives of farmers. The chi-square (χ2) test results of mating practices showed a significant difference (p < 0.001) and 63.8% of farmers used controlled mating. According to the ranking index result, large body size (0.35), colour (0.26), and good traction (0.18) were considered the most important traits in selecting a breeding bull. High milk yield (0.4), colour (0.19), large body size (0.16), and calf growth (0.13) were the preferred traits/criterias for cow selection. Prioritizing farmer trait preference and breeding objectives in this study was critical for the design and implementation of breeding programmes.

Occurrence of Coliforms and Enterococcus Species in Drinking Water Samples Obtained from Selected Dairy Cattle Farms in Portugal

Microbial water quality is a major concern in the world, since the ingestion of water contaminated with microorganisms poses risks to human and animal health. The aim of this study was to evaluate the microbiological quality of drinking water on dairy cattle farms. The study was carried out to determine the occurrence of coliforms and enterococcus species in drinking water samples obtained from selected dairy cattle farms located in four different areas of Portugal (north, central, south and islands). A questionnaire was used to collect relevant information regarding farmer demographics, characteristics of the cattle farms, as well as number of animals per herd, number of adult cows, production type, water source, use of disinfectants and pasture area. In this study, a convenience sample of 32 dairy cattle farms was subjected to screening for water quality. The numbers of animals in the study were 8086 cattle, with a mean herd size of 253, of which 51.7% were cows. Coliform and enterococcus bacterial species were identified by performing the membrane filtration method. The occurrence of poor water quality was recorded in 19 (59.4%) cattle farms. Isolated bacteria included Escherichia coli (20.0%), Enterococcus faecalis (25.0%), total coliforms (65.6%) and fecal coliforms (43.8%). Farms that did not routinely perform disinfection had the worst water quality (70.8%) when compared with farms that performed disinfection (25.0%) (p = 0.022). This research revealed the importance of screening the quality of drinking water on cattle farms, which could contribute to improved animal, human and environmental health in a One Heath approach.

Artificial Water Troughs Use by the Mountain Ungulate Ovis gmelini ophion (Cyprus Mouflon) at Pafos Forest.

For large herbivores inhabiting arid/semi-arid environments, water can be a limiting resource affecting their distribution and abundance for periods when water requirements are not met via forage. The Cyprus mouflon (Ovis gmelini ophion) is such a species, which is endemic to the mountain habitats of Cyprus. Recognizing water scarcity to be a major pressure to the mouflon, and with global warming projected to intensify hot and dry periods in the region, the Game and Fauna Service has been maintaining a network of locally designed watering troughs in Pafos Forest-the mouflon's stronghold-since 1997. This study describes the mouflon's use of the water troughs and examines whether visitation rates differed at the daily or weekly scale in response to environmental, climatic or anthropogenic parameters. Using camera traps, ten troughs were monitored from September 2017 to March 2018 (1,065 days; range 29-164 days per trough). Mouflon were detected at seven troughs (mean herd size 1.5 ± 1.2) during 373 independent detections (≥30 min interval between photographs), with visits peaking during late morning and midday hours. Generalized mixed-effect models showed mouflon visiting water troughs more frequently during hotter days, regardless of recent precipitation. Visits were also more frequent at water troughs located close to tar roads. Moreover, there was no evidence of mouflon avoiding water troughs used by predators (red foxes, feral dogs) at either daily or weekly scale, or during hunting days. The study supports the value of artificial water troughs for mediating, partially at least, the effects of climate change on mountain ungulates such as the Cyprus mouflon. Additional studies are proposed that will examine both mouflon drinking patterns across all seasons and ways of improving the effectiveness of the current water trough grid.

Spatial density pattern of Himalayan Ibex (Capra sibirica) in Pakistan

Mountain ungulates perform a key role in maintaining the balance of ecosystems as they are the primary consumers of vegetation and prey for large predators. The mountain ranges of northern Pakistan are home to six species of mountain ungulates, and the Himalayan ibex (Capra sibirica), hereafter ibex, is the most abundant among them. This study was conducted in three administrative regions of northern Pakistan, viz. Gilgit-Baltistan (GB), Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK), and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), to generate a range-wide density pattern map of ibex. A double-observer survey was conducted in 25 study sites during 2018–2021 across the ibex distribution range, covering an area of about 35,307 km 2 , by walking transects totaling 1647 km. Within the ibex range where the survey was not conducted due to financial and logistical constraints, we obtained species population information from local wildlife departments’ most recent annual survey data. The aim was to generate a density map for the entire ibex range. Using the BBRecapture package in program R, we estimated an ibex population of 7639 (95 % CI) with a mean density of 0.21/km 2 in the surveyed area. Combining with the secondary data from un-surveyed areas, the total population estimate for the country came to 10,242 ibex. The largest population densities were observed in four valleys (Shimshal, Gulkin-Hussaini, Khyber, and Khunjerab) of the Karakoram-Pamir range, followed by the Hindu Kush range (Chitral Wildlife Division [WD]). The central and eastern parts of the Karakoram range had moderate to low densities, while the Himalayan range (e.g., Astore Valley) supported a small population. The mean herd size was 15 individuals (range: 5–41), and the average detection probability of observers A and B was 0.69 and 0.48, respectively. The average male and young ratios per 100 females were estimated to be 75 and 81, respectively. The range-wide density map developed during the study provided an evidence for the impact of trophy hunting programs and an objective tool for range-wide conservation planning of the species.

Assessing the perceptions and practices of peri-urban dairy farmers regarding bovine mastitis management in North-Western Nigeria

Peri-urban dairy farming is an emerging industry in sub-Saharan Africa that risks being undermined by diseases like bovine mastitis (BM) if farmers do not implement appropriate management programmes. However, little is currently known about farmer perceptions and practices towards BM due to challenges with accessing these herds for research. In this study, 49 intensive and 53 extensive peri-urban dairy farmers having ≥10 milking cows in Kaduna and Zaria metropolises, North-Western Nigeria were recruited through snowball sampling and on-farm interviews were conducted to collect information on herd demographics, milking procedures, and mastitis management. Descriptive statistics were provided for all study variables and statistical comparisons were made between intensive and extensive herds. The mean herd size was 33 milking cows (range: 11–62). A greater proportion of extensive herds contained only indigenous breeds of cattle (36/53; 68 %) compared with intensive herds (6/49; 12 %). Hand milking was the most common milking method across both herd types (93/102; 92 %). Intensive herds had better hand washing and udder cleaning practices, but there was no statistical difference between management systems with regards to floor, udder, and tail cleanliness. Only a small number of farms performed on-farm diagnosis of BM via strip cup test (4/102; 4%) or rapid mastitis test (3/102; 3%). Treatment of clinical mastitis was typically by intramuscular antibiotic injection (71/102; 70 %) or topically applied herbal preparations (14/102; 14 %). Dry cow intramammary therapy was only used by 6/46 intensive farms (13 %) and 1/53 extensive farms (2%). Most extensive herds (40/53; 76 %) reported milking cows with clinical mastitis after apparently healthy cows, however this practice was less common among intensive herds (5/49; 10 %). Extensive herds were less likely to request veterinary assistance for mastitis than intensive herds (17/53; 32 % versus 28/49; 57 %) and had higher perceived costs for treating BM cases. Intensive farmers reportedly received higher prices for milk than extensive farmers and perceived that BM was causing significantly more production losses in their herds. Only a small number of farmers (20/102; 20 %) kept mastitis treatment records for their herds. Overall, the study findings indicate that peri-urban dairy farmers may be lacking in awareness of BM impacts and access to basic resources to implement good practices such as hand washing between milking cows and antibiotic intramammary infusions.

Successive use of shared space by badgers and cattle: implications for Mycobacterium bovis transmission

AbstractManaging infectious disease demands understanding pathogen transmission. In Britain, transmission of Mycobacterium bovis from badgers (Meles meles) to cattle hinders the control of bovine tuberculosis (TB), but the mechanism of such transmission is uncertain. As badgers and cattle seldom interact directly, transmission might occur in their shared environment through contact with contamination such as faeces, urine and saliva. We used concurrent GPS collar tracking of badgers and cattle at four sites in Cornwall, southwest Britain, to test whether each species used locations previously occupied by the other species, within the survival time of M. bovis bacteria. Although analyses of the same data set showed that badgers avoided cattle, we found no evidence that this avoidance persisted over time: neither GPS‐collared badgers nor cattle avoided space which had been occupied by the other species in the preceding 36 h. Defining a contact event as an animal being located &lt;5 m from space occupied by the other species within the previous 36 h, we estimated that a herd of 176 cattle (mean herd size in our study areas) would contact badgers at least 6.0 times during an average 24‐h period. Similarly, we estimated that a social group of 3.5 badgers (mean group size in our study areas) would contact cattle at least 0.76 times during an average night. Such frequent successive use of the same shared space, within the survival time of M. bovis bacteria, could potentially facilitate M. bovis transmission via the environment.

Implementation of management recommendations in unweaned dairy calves in western Germany and associated challenges

To improve the welfare of livestock, it is important to assess management practices on farms and to identify areas where current scientific recommendations are rarely implemented. Differences in the implementation of recommendations might be explained by the individual farm as well as the characteristics of survey respondents and their attitude toward animal welfare. Hence, the aim of this study was to assess dairy calf management practices, compare them with current scientific recommendations, and to explore factors that influence implementation of the recommended management practices. A 1.5-h interview was performed with stockpersons on 42 dairy farms (mean herd size ± SD = 149.9 ± 16.6cows) distributed across western Germany in 2018to2019. We observed that the management of unweaned calves varied greatly from farm to farm in aspects such as milk-feeding protocols; timing of grouping and disbudding; and access to water, roughage, and concentrate. Major deviations from management recommendations were (1) cleaning calving pen only by removal of bedding without a following disinfection before restocking on 23.8% farms, cleaning of teat buckets without detergents and disinfection (23.8 and 11.9% of farms, respectively), and failure to disinfect navels (29.3% of farms); (2) separating calf and dam after only 5to8h postpartum for calving at night in 97.6% farms and unchecked colostrum quality by 23.8% of survey respondents; (3) feeding waste milk by 72.4% of the farms surveyed; and (4) removing supernumerary teats and disbudding without local anesthesia (90 and 80% farms surveyed, respectively). The number of implemented recommendations on the farms surveyed correlated with who was responsible for calf rearing, and whether prioritizing animal welfare was considered important by the respondents. This study indicated that limitations of individual housing systems, time management, the stockperson's knowledge, and the stockperson's ability to relate to animals posed challenges in implementation of the recommendations. Further research on challenges in calf management and how to overcome them would be helpful to improve calves' welfare in current husbandry systems.

ANALYSIS OF GENDER ROLES IN GOAT PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT IN KANO STATE, NIGERIA

The study analyzed gender roles in goat production management in some selected Local Government Areas of Kano State, Nigeria. Multi-stage sampling technique was used to select 143 goat farmers. Data was collected using structured questionnaires and analyzed using descriptive statistics, logit regression and Harvard analysis. The findings revealed the mean age of 44.3 years for men and 38.6 years for women with mean household size of 11 people for both genders and mean herd size of 12 and 11 goats for male and female, respectively. The findings further revealed that annual income (P&gt;0.009), herd size (P&gt;0.026) and extension contact (P&gt;0.084) had positive influence to goat production activities among the male goat farmers while annual income (P&gt;0.012) and herd size (P&gt;0.029) had positive influence for goat production activities among the female goat farmers. However, the coefficient of household size (P&gt;-0.082 and -0.200) was negative and significant for both male and female goat farmers, respectively. Harvard analysis reported that 76-100% male farmers were involved more on barn construction, fodder collection, medication and goat marketing; while female goat farmers were involved more on feeding and water provision as revealed by 76-100%. Both genders were involved in cleaning of barn; but male have more control over the resources in goat management. Pest and disease problem (70.1% and 68.2%), feed shortages (26% and 47%) and limited capital (29.9% and 34.8%) were the main constraints faced by goat farmers. The study concluded that goat production was not gender sensitive. It was recommended that goat farmers should be encouraged to form cooperatives and pool their resources together to facilitate easy access to credit, extension agencies need to extend their services to all goat farmers in respective of gender and the need for improvement in veterinary services to curtail the problem of pest and diseases.

PERI-URBAN DAIRY PRODUCTION IN OGUN STATE

Peri-urban dairy production was assessed in sixty-nine settlements from five Local Government Areas of Ogun State. Majority of the household heads were Fulani from Kwara State. The mean herd size was 12 while the predominant breeds were the Bunaji and Keteku. Calves suckle their dams until weaning at an average of 8.3 months. Estimates of extractable milk from each cow ranged from 227 to 816 liters per loctation. About 85.2% of the extractable milk is processed into wet soft cheese (Wara). Trypanosomiasis and diarrhea were the commonly reported disease problems. Improved feeding and health management of cattle would improve the current level of milk production Ogun State

Ethnoveterinary practices among small-holder goat farmers in Ogun State, Nigeria

Objective: Challenges of diseases and inadequate healthcare skills limit productivity of livestock while dearth of qualified veterinarians in rural communities have encouraged ethno-veterinary practices by small-holder farmers. Prevalent goat diseases and the practice and perception of ethno-veterinary activities among small-holder goat farmers were evaluated in Yewa North Local Government Area, Ogun State, Nigeria. Material and Methods: Data were drawn from 110 goat farmers (selected through multistage sampling technique) using Interview guide. Data obtained were analysed using descriptive statistics, Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient and Chi Square analyses. Results showed that respondents mean age, farming experience and average herd size were 63 years, 21.5 years and 15 goats, respectively. All the farmers reared the West African Dwarf breed of goat. Parent stocks were mainly sourced from fellow farmers (95.5%) and most of the farmers keep goats for economic benefits (93.6%). Results: Common diseases that farmers observe in the goats were mange, ecthyma, peste des petits ruminants, and foot rot. Result indicated that farmers largely (81.8%) adopted ethno-veterinary practices in goats disease control and adoption of these practices was due to poor access to professional veterinary doctors (x̄=4.36, SD±0.89), ease of sourcing medicinal plants and herbs (x̄=4.16, SD±1.12), and cost effectiveness (x̄ =3.44, SD±1.21). Farming experience and herd size had significant association with farmers' perception of ethno-veterinary practice. Source of information did not influence farmers' perception on ethno-veterinary practices. Conclusion: Respondents preferred ethno-veterinary method in control of goat diseases and there is need for increased extension and veterinary interventions.

Gender Involvement of Sedentary Fulani in Dairy Farming Practices in Osun State, Nigeria

Summary The study assessed the gender involvement of sedentary Fulani in dairy farming practices in Osun State, Nigeria. A multi-stage sampling procedure was used to select 256 respondents from 12 Local Government Areas (LGAs) inhabited by the sedentary Fulani in the study area. Interview schedules were used for quantitative data collection. Data were analyzed and interpreted using descriptive statistics such as frequency counts, percentages, means and standard deviations while one-way ANOVA was used to draw inferences on the hypothesis. The results showed that the mean age of the male and female respondents was 34.05 ± 12.49 years and 33.33 ± 13.14 years respectively. The majority of the male (85.9 %) and female (89.8 %) respondents had no formal education. The mean herd size of male and female respondents was 20 ± 2 and 5 ± 2 heads of cattle respectively. All of the male respondents indicated that fencing, grazing and milking were male gender roles, while all female respondents indicated that cleaning of pens, sales of milk/milk products and processing of milk were female gender roles. The study showed that 42.7% of the male and10.2% of the female respondents had high level of involvement in dairy farming activities, while 24.7% of the male and 44.2% of the female respondents had low level of involvement. Further results revealed that there were significant differences (F = 312.80) between the male and female respondents in their involvement in dairy farming practice. The study concluded that there is gender gap in male and female involvement in dairy farming practices.

Prevalence of foot lesions in Québec dairy herds from 2015 to 2018

Our first objective was to estimate the prevalence of foot lesions by type of milking system in dairy cows examined during regular hoof-trimming sessions between 2015 and 2018 in Québec dairy herds. A secondary objective was to describe the effect of day-to-day variation, cow, and herd characteristics on the prevalence of foot lesions. Data included 52,427 observations (on a cow during a specific trimming session) performed on 28,470 cows (≥2 yr old) from 355 herds. Only observations from trimming sessions in which ≥90% of the lactating herd was trimmed were considered. Lesions were recorded at the hoof level by 17 trained hoof trimmers between March 23, 2015, and July 10, 2018, using a computerized recording system. Hoof-level information was then matched with cow information and centralized at the Eastern Canada Dairy Herd Improvement. Foot lesions were classified into 6 categories: infectious, white line disease, heel erosion, ulcers, hemorrhages, and any type of foot lesions. Prevalence of each outcome was quantified using the marginal predicted mean probability estimated from a null generalized linear mixed model with a logit link, and accounted for clustering of observations by cow and by herd. Variance was partitioned to assess the variation in the probability of the outcomes attributable to each level of the data structure (day of exam, cow, and herd). Prevalence of a given foot lesion as function of milking system and of various explanatory variables (mean herd size, herd average daily production, breed of the cow, age of the cow at trimming, and year of the visit) was then estimated using a generalized linear mixed model. At least 1 foot lesion was observed in 29% of cows examined during regular trimming sessions in Québec from 2015 to 2018. Prevalence for any type of lesion was 27% for pipeline, 38% for robotic milking, and 41% for milking parlors. The highest prevalence of infectious lesions (mainly digital dermatitis) was observed in milking parlors and robotic systems, while the most prevalent lesions in pipeline were hemorrhages. Herd-level factors explained most of the disease probability for infectious diseases, heel erosion, and hemorrhages. Therefore, control of these diseases should be based on applying best herd-management practices. On the other hand, probabilities of white line disease and sole ulcers were mainly determined by cow-level characteristics.

A survey of management practices and major diseases of dairy cattle in smallholdings in selected towns of Jimma zone, south-western Ethiopia

Context Smallholder dairy farming is becoming an important source of food, income and employment for many urban dwellers in Ethiopia. However, suboptimal productivity is a major constraint due to diseases and poor management practices. Aims The present work aimed at assessing management practices, dairy cattle diseases, and methods used by farmers to identify diseases on smallholdings in selected towns of Jimma zone, south-western Ethiopia. Methods Data for the study were obtained by surveying 52 dairy-keeping farmers by using a semi-structured questionnaire and personal observations. Key results The mean herd size of indigenous and crossbred cattle was 5 ± 0.04 and 2 ± 0.4 respectively. Natural pasture was the main source of feed with supplementation, mainly with agro-industrial by-products, concentrate mixes, non-conventional feeds and crop residues. In total, 75% of the respondents practiced a free-grazing system. Most (64%) of the respondents used natural service for breeding. In all, 64% and 35% of the respondents washed their hands and the teats respectively, before milking. In the order of decreasing percentage of respondents, the most frequently reported dairy cattle health problems were tick infestation, mastitis, lumpy skin disease, blackleg, heart water, facioliasis, trypanosomiasis, foot-and-mouth disease, pasteurellosis, brucellosis and anthrax. Repeated breeding, retained fetal membranes, abortion, stillbirths and dystocia were the common reproductive health problems, in a decreasing order of the reported percentage. Lumpy skin disease was reported as a major cause of calf and lactating-cow deaths. A total of 89% of the respondents used veterinary medicines to treat their sick animals. About 24% of the respondents stated culling of their animals due to old age, lack of space, infertility, feed shortage, need for cash and low production, in a decreasing order of importance. Conclusions The results showed farmers are well knowledgeable in cattle production practices and are actually mitigating effects of most disease challenges in their farms, which may have resulted in low milk productivity. Implications The farmers in the current study had some knowledge of milk production activities that may be recommended for similar settings, especially on how to manage dairy cattle production under smallholder farms, obviously including the occurrence of diseases, which they are managing appropriately with available technologies including vaccines and treatment. These could be used as baseline data by dairy stakeholders and policy makers during the formulation and implementation of policies for sustainable growth and development of smallholder dairy for similar settings.

Short communication: Herd-level variables associated with overmilking in Michigan dairy herds

The objective of this study was to determine the herd-level variables that are associated with overmilking in 64 Michigan dairy herds with a mean herd size of 451 cows (range: 59-2,771 cows). Participating producers completed surveys to indicate their mastitis management practices and attitudes. Additionally, milking protocols were observed and milk flow dynamics for 3,824 cows were estimated using digital vacuum recorders. The median duration of overmilking was 47 s (95% confidence interval, CI: 38.6 to 55.9 s), with a mean of 55% (95% CI: 49.5 to 61.1%) of cows within each herd overmilked by at least 30 s. Median milking time for all herds was 324 s (95% CI: 302 to 346 s) and was found to be positively correlated with median duration of overmilking (r = 0.670). Backward multivariate analysis was used to determine which of 45 herd-level milking and management variables were associated with median duration of overmilking. Median duration of overmilking was negatively associated with the duration of time needed to complete 1 milking for the entire herd (adjusted R2 = 0.13). Herds that operate milking facilities below maximum daily capacity may be prone to overmilking. Given the low coefficient of determination, variables unaccounted for in this study, such as equipment function or manual detachment by milking operators, are likely the most important risk factors for overmilking.

Herd-level variables associated with premilking stimulation time in Michigan dairy herds

The objective of this study was to determine the herd-level variables that were associated with total stimulation time during the premilking routine in 64 Michigan dairy herds. The mean herd size was 452 cows (range = 59 to 2,771 cows). For each herd, surveys were administered to producers to gather mastitis management practices and attitudes. Additionally, milking protocols were observed and milk flow dynamics were measured by use of digital vacuum recorders. Backward multivariate regression analysis was used to determine which of 47 herd-level milking and management variables were associated with mean total stimulation time. Mean total stimulation time was 14.2 s (range = 2.4-40.8 s) and was positively associated with increasing latency period (time interval between first stimulation and cluster attachment). Total stimulation time was negatively associated with greater herd size and number of visits to each cow in the premilking routine. In summary, increased stimulation time is more likely in herds that foster a lower sense of urgency of cow throughput during milking, as evidenced by a positive association with longer latency periods and fewer preparation visits per cow. Tactile stimulation is critical for efficient milk ejection; if inadequate, cows are at greater risk of delayed milk ejection and bimodal milk flow, which in turn has been associated with teat congestion and reduced milk flow. This study offers insight as to some of the herd factors that may be limiting adequate tactile stimulation.

Sow mortality is associated with meat inspection findings

Sow meat inspection (MI) and mortality data are important sources of information for use in herd health work. This observational study examined whether MI results of sows associate with sow mortality in Finnish sow herds. We also described some MI findings of sows to create basic references in order to encourage their use in herd health work. The project was widely advertised to farmers of sow herds and practicing veterinarians. Ten herds joined the project voluntarily and 36 other herds after they were contacted by the researchers. MI data (carcass weight, lean meat percentage, arthritis, abscesses, liver condemnations, milk spots, organ condemnations, pleuritis, pneumonia, shoulder ulcers, tail biting, whole carcass condemnations, partial carcass condemnations and kg of meat condemned) were made available by the three largest slaughterhouses in Finland, and sow mortality data were obtained from the National Swine Herd Register for 39 of the study herds for the year 2014. The mean herd size of participating herds was 529 females with a standard deviation of ± 479 and mean annual mortality 9.0% ± 5.2%. As much as 22.8% of the 7437 slaughtered sows had at least one MI finding. Heavy carcasses were less likely to have at least one MI finding. A median (range) of 1.8% (0–7.2) and 11.8% (0–34.6) of the sows were recorded to have a whole and partial carcass condemnation, respectively. The most common MI findings were abscesses (5.7%, 0–16.3), shoulder ulcers (3.6%, 0–22.9) and arthritis (2.1%, 0–13.3). In individual carcasses, abscesses were associated with arthritis, shoulder ulcers and pneumonia, which was indicative that these animals most likely had a systemic infection. Pneumonia findings were associated with pleuritis. At the herd level, the increase of sow mortality by 1% was associated with an increased percentage of slaughtered females with at least one MI finding 0.8% (P = 0.01). If sow mortality increased by 1%, the odds ratio for the herd having more than a median percentage of pleuritis was 1.3 (95% confidence interval; 1.01−1.57, P = 0.04) compared to the situation of the herd having less than a median percentage of pleuritis. Also, if sow mortality increased by 1%, the percentage of partial carcass condemnations of females increased by 0.4% (P = 0.08). These results suggest that high mortality was associated with an increase of some MI findings. MI results of sows should be used in herd health follow-up of sow health.

Using species traits to predict detectability of animals on aerial surveys.

In animal surveys, detectability can vary widely across species. We hypothesized that detectability of animals should be a function of species traits such as mass, color, and mean herd size. We also hypothesized that models of detectability based on species traits can be used to predict detectability for new species not in the original data set, leading to substantial benefits for ecology and conservation. We tested these hypotheses with double-observer aerial surveys of 10 mammal species in northern Botswana. We combined all 10 species and modeled their detectability with species traits (mass, mean herd size, color) as predictors while controlling for observer effects, vegetation, and herd size. We found support for effects of mass and an interaction between herd size and mean herd size on detectability. This model accurately predicted the ratio of herds detected by two observers vs. one observer for 8 of 10 species. To test whether a model based on species traits could be applied to a new species, we serially deleted each species from the data set, fit a trait-based model to the remaining nine species, and used this model to predict detectability for the deleted species. The model was able to reproduce the species-trait model for seven species and accurately predicted the ratio of detections by one or two observers for a different set of seven species; the model was successful by both measures for five species. To our knowledge, this represents the first time that a mechanistic model for detectability of animals has been used to predict detectability for new species. Prediction failed for species with extreme values of traits, suggesting that predicting detectability is not possible near or beyond the boundaries of one's data set. The approach taken in this paper can potentially be used with a variety of taxa and may provide new opportunities to apply detectability corrections where they have not been possible before.

Survey of facility and management characteristics of large, Upper Midwest dairy herds clustered by Dairy Herd Improvement records

A survey of management practices was conducted to investigate potential associations with groupings of herds formed by cluster analysis (CA) of Dairy Herd Improvement (DHI) data of 557 Upper Midwest herds of 200 cows or greater. Differences in herd management practices were identified between the groups, despite underlying similarities; for example, freestall housing and milking in a parlor. Group 6 comprised larger herds with a high proportion of primiparous cows and most frequently utilized practices promoting increased production [e.g., 84.4% used recombinant bovine somatotropin (rbST)], decreased lameness (e.g., 96.9% used routine hoof trimming for cows), and improved efficiency in reproduction [e.g., 93.8% synchronized the first breeding in cows (SYNCH)] and labor (e.g., mean ± SD, 67±19 cows per 50-h per week full-time equivalent worker). Group 1 had the best mean DHI performances and followed most closely group 6 for the rate of adoption of intensive management practices while tending to outperform group 6 despite a generally smaller mean herd size (e.g., 42.3±3.6 kg vs. 39.9±3.6 kg of energy-corrected milk production; 608±352 cows vs. 1,716±1,405 cows). Group 2 were smaller herds with relatively high levels of performance that used less intensive management (e.g., 100% milked twice daily) and less technology (33.3 vs. 73.0% of group 1 used rbST). Group 4 were smaller but poorer-performing herds with low turnover and least frequently used intensive management practices (e.g., 39.1% SYNCH; 30.4% allowed mature, high-producing cows access to pasture). Group 5 used modern technologies and practices associated with improved production, yet had the least desirable mean DHI performance of all 6 groups. This group had the lowest proportion of deep loose-bedded stalls (only 52.2% used sand bedding) and the highest proportion (34.8%) of herds not using routine hoof trimming. The survey of group 3 herds did not reveal strong trends in management. The differences identified between herd groupings confirm significant variation in management practices linked to variation in overall herd performance measured by DHI variables. This approach provides an opportunity for consultants and outreach educators to better tailor efforts toward a certain type of dairy management philosophy, rather than taking a blanket approach to applying recommendations to farms simply because of their larger herd size.