Salvia Farinacea Research Articles

Podosphaera xanthii Causing Powdery Mildew on Salvia farinacea in Central China.

Salvia farinacea, commonly referred as mealycup sage, is a perennial herbaceous plant belonging to the Salvia genus of the Lamiaceae family. It originates from the Mediterranean region, North America, and Europe and is globally cultivated due to its appealing and captivating flowers. Moreover, mealycup sage is utilized as traditional Chinese medicinal plant for treatment of cardiovascular diseases (Li et al. 2018). In October 2023, powdery mildew-like symptoms were observed on Salvia farinacea plants cultivated in a garden located in Xinxiang City, Henan Province, China (113.93, 35.29). The leaves were covered with white and thin masses of mycelia, conidiophores and conidia of the fungus. About 100 plants were checked and 90 % were infected. There were a large number of white colonies with irregular or continuous round lesions on the adaxial and abaxial surfaces of the leaves, covering approximately 80% of the leaf area. The slightly or straight curved conidiophores (n = 30) were 46 to 145× 8 to 11 μm in size and consisted of foot cells, shorter cells and conidia. The ellipsoidal to oval conidia (n = 30), containing fibrosin bodies, were 24 to 35 × 12 to 19 μm in size and had a length/width ratio of 1.8 to 2.1. No chasmothecia were observed on leaves. These morphological features were consistent with those of Podosphaera xanthii (Braun and Cook 2012). Following the previously described method (White et al. 1990; Bradshaw et al. 2022; Zhu et al. 2022a), the sequences of ITS and Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) regions were amplified with specific primers ITS1/ITS4 (ITS1 5'-TCCGTAGGTGAACCTGCGG-3' ; ITS4 5'-TCCTCCGCTTATTGATATGC-3') and PMGAPDH1/PMGAPDH3R (PMGAPDH1 5'-GGAATGGCTATGCGTGTACC-3'; PMGAPDH3R 5'-CCCCATTCGTTGTCGTACCATG-3'), and the resulting sequences were uploaded in GenBank (Accession No. OR761885 and PP236082, respectively). BLASTn analysis showed that the sequence shared 560/565 (99%) and 272/272 (100%) homology with P. xanthii (MW301281) on Impatiens balsamina (Zhu et al. 2022b) and with P. xanthii (ON075658) on Cucumis melo (Bradshaw et al. 2022), respectively. The phylogenetic analysis clearly illustrated that the collected isolate of P. xanthii clustered in the same clade. The pathogenicity was tested according to the method previously described (Zhu et al. 2021). The fungus was inoculated onto the leaf surfaces of three healthy plants by blowing conidia from infected leaves with pressurized air. Non-inoculated plants were treated as control. Both the control and inoculated plants were separately placed in growth chambers under 60% humidity; light/dark, 16 h/8 h; and a temperature of 18°C. After a period of 12-15 days, the leaves of the inoculated plants exhibited signs of powdery mildew, whereas the control group remained unaffected. Therefore, the fungal pathogen was identified and confirmed as P. xanthii (isolate PXSF202310). Previously, P. xanthii was reported on Impatiens balsamina and S. farinacea from China and Korea (Zhu et al. 2021; Choi et al. 2022). As far as we know, this is the first documentation of P. xanthii on S. farinacea in central China. The presence of P. xanthii can lead to a deterioration in plant health and stunted growth, thereby negatively impacting both the decorative and medicinal value of S. farinacea. The recognition of P. xanthii on S. farinacea enhances our comprehension of this pathogen hosts and provides fundamental information for forthcoming disease control studies.

Salvia farinacea seed oil, a potential biomass for synthesis of biodiesel: A critical analysis of its fuel properties.

The non-renewable energy sources such as coal, petrol decreasing day by day and their price also increasing. In this fast depleting era of fossil fuels biodiesel produced from nonedible seed oils plays an important role. In the present work the biodiesel is produced from nonedible seed oil Salvia farinacea. In this work from Salvia farinacea seeds oil is extracted and fatty acid components are analysed by GC-FID. Physicochemical properties of the oil are determined by AOAC standard methods. The oil is transesterified in presence of KOH catalyst. Fuel parameters like iodine number, cetane number, heating values, kinematic viscosity, flash point, cold flow properties are determined and are compared with already existing biodiesels and petrodiesel. The emission components like CO, CO­­2, NOx, HC and Smoke opacity are analysed using four stroke one cylinder engine. This work reveals that Salvia farinacea seed oil is a potential renewable feedstock for the production of biodiesel.

Phytonutritional compounds and antioxidant activity of eight new edible flowers

In the last years, special attention has been given to the nutritional properties of food, and the edible flowers (EFs) represent an uncommon fresh product to characterise, with the aim to explore new species with peculiar aesthetic and the aromatic features. This work investigated some nutritional properties of eight new EFs, such as Begonia boliviensis A.DC. (pink and white varieties), Dahlia pinnata Cav., Salvia farinacea Benth., S. × jamensis J.Compton, S. ‘Purple Queen’ Tulbaghia simmleri Beauv. ‘Alba’, T. violacea Harv. ‘Alba’, chosen for their different colours and corolla morphologies. Primary and secondary metabolites have been determined. The highest protein content was found in T. violacea ‘Alba’ and D. pinnata. The Salvia species showed the highest soluble sugar content. The two Tulbaghia species were notable for hexose and ascorbic acid content. D. pinnata showed the highest polyphenols, flavonoids and carotenoid content, with the highest antiradical activity.

Enhancing Solar-Induced Fluorescence Interpretation: Quantifying Fractional Sunlit Vegetation Cover Using Linear Spectral Unmixing

Solar-induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF) is closely related to plant photosynthetic activity and has been used in different studies as a proxy for vegetation health status. However, in order to use SIF as a relevant indicator of plant physiological stress, it is necessary to accurately quantify the amount of light absorbed by the photosynthetic plant pigments, called the absorbed photosynthetically active radiation (APAR). The ratio between fluorescence emission and light absorption (i.e., SIF and APAR) is known as the fluorescence quantum efficiency (FQE). In this work, simultaneous measurements of SIF and reflected radiance were performed both at the leaf and canopy levels for Salvia farinacea and Datura stramonium plants. With the aim of disentangling the proportion of sunlit and shaded absorbed PAR, an ad hoc experimental setup was designed to provide a wide range of fraction vegetation cover (FVC) canopy settings. A linear spectral unmixing method was proposed to estimate the contribution of soil, sunlit, and shaded vegetation from the total reflectance spectrum measured at the canopy level. Later, the retrieved sunlit FVC (FVCsunlit) was used to estimate the (dominant) green APAR flux, and this was combined with the integral of the spectrally resolved fluorescence to calculate the FQE. The results of this study demonstrated that under no-stress conditions and independently of the FVC, similar FQE values were observed when SIF was properly normalised by the green APAR flux. The results obtained showed that the reflectance spectra retrieved using a linear unmixing method had a maximum RMSE of less than 0.03 along the spectrum. The FVCsunlit evaluation showed an RMSE of 14% with an R2 of 0.84. Moreover, the FQE values obtained at the top of the canopy (TOC) were found statistically comparable to the reference values at the leaf level. These results support further efforts to improve the interpretation of fluorescence based on field spectroscopy and the further upscaling to imaging spectroscopy at airborne and satellite levels.

Resonance Raman and Visible Micro-Spectroscopy for the In-Vivo and In-Vitro Characterization of Anthocyanin-Based Pigments in Blue and Violet Flowers: A Comparison with HPLC-ESI- MS Analysis of the Extracts

Microanalysis techniques based on resonance Raman and reflection visible spectroscopy have been applied to the characterization of pigments responsible for the blue or violet coloration in flowers; in particular of Lobelia erinus, Campanula portenschlagiana, Cineraria, Viola tricolor, Anemone coronaria, Agapanthus, Platycodon, Salvia farinacea, Plumbago capensis, Ceratostigma plumbaginoides, Commelina communis and Salvia patens. The spectroscopic methods were applied both in vivo on the flower petals and in vitro on extracts obtained through a procedure based on SPE (solid-phase extraction) optimized for minimal quantities of vegetable raw material. Different patterns obtained for the Raman spectra have been correlated, also on the basis of density functional theory (DFT) calculations, with different schemes of substitution of the benzopyrilium nucleus of the anthocyanins and with various possible forms of copigmentation responsible for the stabilization of the blue color. The results obtained were verified by comparison with the analysis of the extracts by HPLC-ESI-MS (liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry).

Evolution of anther connective teeth in sages (Salvia, Lamiaceae) under bee and hummingbird pollination

Salvia (Lamiaceae) is a sub-cosmopolitan genus of about 1000 species that often employ a “staminal lever mechanism” that is thought to have spurred species diversification within the genus. The function and evolution of ventral outgrowths or connective teeth, associated with the lever mechanism in some species of Salvia, is often unclear despite the wealth of pollination observations across the genus and the major role that pollinators play in driving diversification within the genus. We document the role of these teeth in pollination studies of bee-pollinated Salvia farinacea, examine connective teeth across other bee- and hummingbird-pollinated species of New World subg. Calosphace, and provide an evolutionary scenario for the connective teeth in context of the staminal lever. Our observations show that the larger teeth function as pressure points at the floral entrance and, when pressed by a pollinator, facilitate movement of the lever. Multiple shifts in pollinator within subg. Calosphace may have resulted in further modifications of the connective and possible further losses and independent origins of connective teeth in Calosphace. Other distantly related subgenera (e.g., Sclarea, Glutinaria) display morphologically and spatially different protuberances on the connective, suggesting that connective teeth only evolved near the base of subg. Calosphace.

Detoxification of Aflatoxin B1 and Ochratoxin A Using Salvia farinacea and Azadirachta indica Water Extract and Application in Meat Products.

Seventy-five samples of selected meat products, including luncheon, beef burger, sausage, basterma, and kofta, were collected from Alexandria and New Borg El-Arab cities (Egypt). The samples were subjected to mycological examination as well as for detection of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and ochratoxin A (OTA) residues. Besides, the study evaluated the effect of aqueous leaf extracts from mealycup sage (Salvia farinacea) and neem (Azadirachta indica), individually and in combination, on the growth of human pathogens Aspergillus parasiticus and Aspergillus flavus producing AFB1, as well as Aspergillus ochraceus and Aspergillus niger which produce OTA. The obtained results revealed that sausage samples had the highest mould count with a mean value of 13.20×102/g, followed by basterma samples 12.05×102/g, then beef burger 7.39×102/g. In contrast, luncheon and kofta samples had the lowest count with a mean value of 5.51×102/g and 2.82×102/g. The findings revealed the antifungal potential of tested extracts. The total inhibition of A. parasitcus and A. niger growth was observed at 2 mg/mL of the combined extract. Salvia farinacea extract had the highest total phenolic content and total flavonoid content with a value of 174.1 and 52.6 mg g-1, respectively. Rutin was the major phenolic component in neem and combined extracts, accounting for 19123 and 8882 μg/g, respectively. Besides, the study investigated detoxification of AFB1 and OTA using combined extract in albino rats. The results confirmed the convenient and safe use of Salvia farinacea and Azadirachta indica extract and their combination as natural antifungal and antioxidant agents. The combined extract could be used as a natural preservative in food processing to control or prevent contamination.

Host plants of the powdery mildew fungus Podosphaera xanthii in Taiwan

Podosphaera xanthii is presently considered as one of the powdery mildew fungi with the broadest host range. Confusion is caused by taxonomical and nomenclatural changes of the host plants and the fungal parasite. Based on the list of powdery mildews from Taiwan from 1998, an updated list of host plants of P. xanthii in this country is presented. New hosts from Taiwan are wild and horticultural herbs and woody plants collected between 2011 and 2020. Fifteen plant species were found to be the host of P. xanthii based on new collections of the anamorph and internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences. Among them, Cuphea carthagenensis, Cuphea hyssopifolia, Erigeron bellioides, Mazus pumilus, Phyllanthus tenellus, Salvia farinacea, and Sphagneticola trilobata were new hosts worldwide, whereas Bidens pilosa, Eclipta prostrata, Pouzolzia zeylanica, and Torenia fournieri were new hosts in Taiwan. Four further plant species were confirmed as known hosts (Emilia sonchifolia, Sesamum indicum, Trema orientalis, Zinnia elegans). Asteraceae contained most host species in Taiwan, which appeared proportional to the high species diversity in this plant family. The second highest host diversity in the Cucurbitaceae, however, was not proportional to plant diversity. Although the fungus is able to cause similar symptoms on a broad range of hosts, certain host species showed specific responses to infection. In some species, infection remains limited to old leaves, whereas in other species, only young leaves or mainly stems are infected.

First Report of Leaf Spot of Salvia farinacea Caused by Alternaria alternata in China

HomePlant DiseaseVol. 104, No. 9First Report of Leaf Spot of Salvia farinacea Caused by Alternaria alternata in China PreviousNext DISEASE NOTES OPENOpen Access licenseFirst Report of Leaf Spot of Salvia farinacea Caused by Alternaria alternata in ChinaJ. J. Ding, X. Gu, X. H. Yang, L. L. Yao, X. D. Gao, M. M. Zhang, and Y. G. LiJ. J. DingJiamusi Branch of Heilongjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiamusi 154000, ChinaSearch for more papers by this author, X. GuJiamusi Branch of Heilongjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiamusi 154000, ChinaSearch for more papers by this author, X. H. YangJiamusi Branch of Heilongjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiamusi 154000, ChinaSearch for more papers by this author, L. L. YaoJiamusi Branch of Heilongjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiamusi 154000, ChinaSearch for more papers by this author, X. D. GaoJiamusi Branch of Heilongjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiamusi 154000, ChinaSearch for more papers by this author, M. M. ZhangJiamusi Branch of Heilongjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiamusi 154000, ChinaSearch for more papers by this author, and Y. G. Li†Corresponding author: Y. G. Li; E-mail Address: neaulyg@126.comhttp://orcid.org/0000-0003-4582-2473Agricultural College, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, ChinaSearch for more papers by this author AffiliationsAuthors and Affiliations J. J. Ding1 X. Gu1 X. H. Yang1 L. L. Yao1 X. D. Gao1 M. M. Zhang1 Y. G. Li2 † 1Jiamusi Branch of Heilongjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiamusi 154000, China 2Agricultural College, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China Published Online:9 Jul 2020https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS-02-20-0415-PDNAboutSectionsSupplemental ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack Citations ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditEmailWechat Salvia farinacea Benth. is a herbaceous perennial plant. In July 2018, a leaf spot disease was observed on S. farinacea at four nurseries in Harbin, China, with approximately 50% of the plants diseased. Disease symptoms were irregular, necrotic spots on leaves (0.5 to 1 mm in diameter). Ten tissue samples from 10 individual plants were surface disinfested in 0.5% NaOCl for 5 min, rinsed three times in sterile distilled water, and cultured on potato dextrose agar (PDA) amended with antibiotics at 26°C. Six similar fungal cultures were isolated and subcultured. Single-conidium isolates were generated with methods reported previously (Leslie and Summerell 2006). Colonies on PDA were olive-green with a white margin, with black pigments and abundant aerial hyphae. Conidia were black to brown, obclavate to obpyriform, with a small beak in long sparsely branched chains on simple short conidiophores, measuring 4.6 to 14.2 μm in width and 8.2 to 30.8 μm in length (n = 50), and had one to four transverse and zero to three longitudinal septa. According to these morphological characteristics, all isolates were identified as a species of Alternaria (Simmons 2007). Genomic DNA was extracted from the mycelium of three representative isolates: XPC1, XPC3, and XPC6. The internal transcribed spacer region (ITS), translation elongation factor 1-α gene (TEF1), and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPD) were amplified and sequenced using primers ITS1/ITS4 (White et al. 1990), EF1-728F/EF1-986R (Carbone and Kohn 1999), and Gpd1/Gpd2 (Woudenberg et al. 2013). The consensus sequences (accession nos. MN733165 for ITS, MN756011 for TEF1, and MT108177 for GPD) were aligned using BLASTn in GenBank and were 100% identical to A. alternata strains ITC20 (accession no. KX987252.1), WCS1-5 (MK791316.1), and YJ1 (KP851968.1), respectively. To confirm pathogenicity of XPC1, XPC3, and XPC6, S. farinacea plants were grown in 15-cm pots containing a commercial potting mix (one plant/pot). At the five- to eight-leaf stage, three healthy plants were inoculated by spraying 50 μl of conidial suspension of the isolates (4 × 106 spores/ml) onto unwounded leaves. Three plants treated with sterile distilled water served as the control. All plants were placed in a humidity chamber (>95% relative humidity, 26°C) for 48 h after inoculation and then transferred into a greenhouse at 22/28°C. All inoculated leaves showed symptoms similar to those observed in the nursery 10 days after inoculation, whereas no symptoms were observed on the control leaves. The fungus was reisolated and confirmed to be A. alternata. A. alternata has previously been reported on Salvia spp. in Italy (Garibaldi et al. 2019) and Argentina (Kameniecki et al. 2013). To our knowledge, this is the first report of A. alternata on S. farinacea in China. Occurrence of the new disease caused by A. alternata should prompt full consideration for the use of proper disease management to protect S. farinacea.The author(s) declare no conflict of interest.

Pollinator-attracting Companion Plantings Increase Crop Yield of Cucumbers and Habanero Peppers

Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) and habanero pepper (Capsicum chinense Jacq.) growers have observed increased crop yield by placing bees in close proximity to these vegetable crops. However, adding managed bees typically may not be feasible for small-scale farmers or homeowners. Limited studies have demonstrated the potential of pollinator-attracting plants to be used as a lure to enhance the visitation of pollinators to adjacent food crops. This study evaluated the potential of adding pollinator-attracting plants in close proximity to cucumber and habanero plants to improve yields by either establishing permanent perennial companion plantings adjacent to the crops or interplanting annual companion plants within the row anew with each crop. The perennial treatment group consisted of Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene, Borrichia frutescens (L.) DC., Salvia farinacea Benth. ‘Henry Duelberg’, and Eysenhardtia texana Scheele. The annual treatment group consisted of Cosmos bipinnatus Cav., Zinnia ×marylandica D.M. Spooner, Stimart, & T. Boyle, Borago officinalis L., and Ocimum basilicum L. Multiple cropping cycles were initiated using both spring and fall seasons, and yield was assessed for three successive cropping cycles. Fruit quality was unaffected by pollinator-attracting companion plantings; however total and marketable yields were impacted. Cucumber yields were significantly (P < 0.05) greater during fall harvests with annual companion plantings and with the second fall harvest in perennial companion plant plots. Perennial companion plots initially yielded less than control plots or annual companion plots due to the space allocated to the companion plantings and the fewer pollinators initially attracted to the plots compared with the annual companion plantings. When the perennial plots became more established, they resulted in similar yields as the annual companion planting plots. Although habanero yields were increased by annual companion plantings in spring and fall, cucumbers were unaffected by companion plantings in spring. This suggests a potential seasonality for the efficacy of some pollinator-attracting companion plantings for a given crop that could offer an opportunity to tailor companion plantings to attract specific pollinators at different times of the year.

Influence of foliar treatment with silicon contained in the Actisil Hydro Plus preparation on the growth, flowering and chemical composition of Gazania rigens (L.) Gaertn., Salvia farinacea Benth and Verbena hybrida Voss

Influence of foliar treatment with silicon contained in the Actisil Hydro Plus preparation on the growth, flowering and chemical composition of Gazania rigens (L.) Gaertn., Salvia farinacea Benth and Verbena hybrida Voss

Relative Salt Tolerance of Seven Texas Superstar® Perennials

Salt tolerance of seven Texas Superstar® perennials [Malvaviscus arboreus var. drummondii (Turk’s cap), Phlox paniculata ‘John Fanick’ (‘John Fanick’ phlox), Phlox paniculata ‘Texas Pink’ (‘Texas Pink’ phlox), Ruellia brittoniana ‘Katie Blue’ (‘Katie Blue’ ruellia), Salvia farinacea ‘Henry Duelberg’ (‘Henry Duelberg’ salvia), Salvia leucantha (mexican bush sage), and Verbena ×hybrida ‘Blue Princess’ (‘Blue Princess’ verbena)] was evaluated in a greenhouse experiment. Plants were irrigated with a nutrient solution at electrical conductivity (EC) of 1.1 dS·m−1 (control) or a salt solution at EC of 5.0 or 10.0 dS·m−1 (EC 5 or EC 10) for 8 weeks. ‘John Fanick’ and ‘Texas Pink’ phlox plants in EC 5 had severe salt foliage damage, while those in EC 10 were died. Mexican bush sage in EC 10 had severe salt foliage damage. Turk’s cap, ‘Katie Blue’ ruellia, ‘Henry Duelberg’ salvia, and ‘Blue Princess’ verbena had minor foliar damage regardless of treatment. EC 5 reduced the shoot dry weight (DW) by 45% in ‘Texas Pink’ phlox and 11% to 18% in ‘Katie Blue’ ruellia, ‘Henry Duelberg’ salvia, and mexican bush sage, but did not impact the shoot DW of Turk’s cap and ‘John Fanick’ phlox. EC 10 further decreased the shoot DW of ‘Katie Blue’ ruellia, ‘Henry Duelberg’ salvia, and mexican bush sage plants by 32%, 29%, and 56%, respectively. EC 5 decreased leaf net photosynthesis (Pn) of ‘Texas Pink’ phlox and mexican bush sage, while EC 10 reduced Pn of all species except ‘Henry Duelberg’ salvia and ‘Blue Princess’ verbena. ‘Katie Blue’ ruellia and ‘Blue Princess’ verbena had relatively lower leaf Na concentration and ‘John Fanick’ phlox, ‘Texas Pink’phlox, and mexican bush sage had higher leaf Cl concentrations. In summary, Turk’s cap, ‘Katie Blue’ ruellia, ‘Henry Duelberg’ salvia, and ‘Blue Princess’ verbena were the most tolerant perennials, and ‘John Fanick’ phlox, ‘Texas Pink’ phlox, and mexican bush sage were the least tolerant to salinity.

Statistical Model for Describing Macronutrient Impacts on Container Substrate pH Over Time

Although many factors that influence substrate pH have been quantified, the effect from fertilizers continues to be elusive. A multifactorial experiment was conducted to test macronutrient effects using a rarely used statistical method known as the central composite design. Five nutrient factors, including nitrogen (N) carrier ratio (NH4+ vs. NO3–) and concentrations of phosphorus (P) (as H2PO4–), potassium (K), combined calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S), were varied at five levels each encompassing the proportionate range of these nutrients in commercial greenhouse fertilizers. Although a typical factorial experiment would have resulted in 55 = 3125 treatments, the central composite design reduced the number to 30 fertilizer treatments. An experiment was conducted twice in which ‘Evolution White’ mealy-cup sage (Salvia farinacea Benth.) was grown in 14-cm-diameter pots (1.29 L) in a 3 peat:1 perlite (v/v) substrate amended with non-residual powdered calcium carbonate to raise the substrate pH to ≈5.6 to 5.8. Harvests occurred after 3 and 6 weeks of growth. A statistical model described substrate pH over time with significant effects including four main effects of N carrier ratio, P, K, and combined Ca and Mg; three squared terms of N carrier ratio, P, and K; and seven interaction effects. The resulting model was used to calculate substrate pH levels between 25 and 45 days after planting, and it showed that N carrier had the greatest impact on substrate pH.

Phenotypic characteristics of the first generation mealycup sage (Salvia FarinaceaBenth.) induced by space radiation

To explore the biological effects of the space radiation, dry seeds of mealycup sage (Salvia farinacea Benth.) were flown with the Chinese space craft “Shen Zhou VIII”. The plants grown from the space exposed seeds displayed considerable changes in phenotypic traits. Eleven space exposed plants (EP) showed one month longer flowering period than the mean of the control plants (CP); 13 EP failed to flower and 23 bore flowers, within which 25 plants mutated in respect of flower production; leaf shape of EP showed two extremes: curling and folding, or totally smooth; 11 EP had mutated height, within which 6 plants were taller and 5 shorter than CP. These results demonstrated that space radiation could induce favorable mutations on plant seeds.

Response of Selected Wildflower Species to Saline Water Irrigation

Wildflowers are good candidates for water-wise landscapes because many of them are drought-tolerant after establishment. Little information is available regarding whether these herbaceous wildflowers are tolerant to salt stress. Container experiments were carried out in a greenhouse and a shadehouse under semiarid climate conditions to investigate the salt tolerance of six native wildflowers: Salvia farinacea (mealy cup sage), Berlandiera lyrata (chocolate daisy), Ratibida columnaris (Mexican hat), Oenothera elata (Hooker’s evening primrose), Zinnia grandiflora (plains zinnia), and Monarda citriodora (lemon horsemint). In the greenhouse experiment, mealy cup sage, Hooker’s evening primrose, and plains zinnia were irrigated with a saline solution with an electrical conductivity (EC) of 1.5 (control, nutrient solution), 2.8, 4.1, 5.1, or 7.3 dS·m−1 for 45 days. All plants survived except for plains zinnia at EC of 7.3 dS·m−1. Shoot dry weights decreased as EC of irrigation water increased for all three species. In the shadehouse experiment (second year), plants of all species (plains zinnia was not included) were irrigated with saline solutions at EC of 0.8 (control, tap water), 2.8, 3.9, 5.5, or 7.3 dS·m−1 for 35 days. Plants were fertilized with slow-release fertilizer in the shadehouse experiment. After 5 weeks of treatment, all plants of lemon horsemint in the elevated salinity treatments, regardless of EC levels, were dead. The visual foliar salt damage rating was lowest for lemon horsemint. Chocolate daisy had low survival percentages and low foliar ratings at EC of 5.5 dS·m−1 and 7.3 dS·m−1. For the other three species, survival percentages were 80% and 90% at EC of 7.3 dS·m−1. Hooker’s evening primrose and mealy cup sage had similar low foliar visual ratings at EC of 7.3 dS·m−1, whereas Mexican hat plants had high foliar visual ratings regardless of salinity treatment. All species had similar high uptake of Na+ in shoots, whereas Hooker’s evening primrose had slightly higher Cl− concentrations compared with other species. Based on these results, lemon horsemint was most sensitive to salinity stress followed by chocolate daisy. Hooker’s evening primrose and mealy cup sage were moderately tolerant and may be irrigated with low salinity water at EC of less than 3.9 dS·m−1. Mexican hat was the most tolerant among the six species.

Nutrient Disorders of ‘Evolution’ Mealy-cup Sage

To produce floriculture crops like mealy-cup sage (Salvia farinacea), growers must be equipped with cultural information including the ability to recognize and characterize nutrient disorders. ‘Evolution’ mealy-cup sage plants were grown in silica-sand culture to induce, describe, and photograph symptoms of nutritional disorders. Plants received a complete modified Hoagland's all-nitrate solution of (macronutrient concentrations in millimoles) 15 nitrate-nitrogen (N), 1.0 phosphorus (P), 6.0 potassium (K), 5.0 calcium (Ca), 2.0 magnesium (Mg), and 2.0 sulfur (S) plus (micronutrient concentrations in micromoles) 72 iron (Fe), 18 manganese (Mn), 3 copper (Cu), 3 zinc (Zn), 45 boron (B), and 0.1 molybdenum (Mo). Nutrient-deficient treatments were induced with a complete nutrient formula minus one of the nutrients. The B-toxicity treatment was induced by increasing the element 10-fold higher than the complete nutrient formula. Reagent-grade chemicals and deionized (DI) water of 18 million ohms per centimeter purity were used to formulate treatment solutions. We monitored plants daily to document and photograph sequential series of symptoms as they developed. Typical symptomology of nutrient disorders and corresponding tissue concentrations were determined. Out of 13 treatments, 12 exhibited symptomology; Mo was asymptomatic. Symptoms of N, P, S, Ca, and K deficiencies and B toxicity manifested early; therefore, these disorders may be more likely problems encountered by growers. Unique symptoms were observed on plants grown under N-, Cu-, and Zn-deficient conditions. Necrosis was a common symptom observed, but use of other diagnostic criteria about location on the plant and progression of the disorder can aid growers in diagnosing nutrient disorders of mealy-cup sage.

The possible causes of leaf spotting of Salvia farinacea and protection possibilityPrzyczyny plamistości liści Salvia farinacea i możliwości ochrony

Summary The aim of this work was to determine the casual agent of leaf spotting of Salvia farinacea and possible methods of its control. The leaves of S. farinacea grown in flowerbed conditions showed disease symptoms browning spots. The results of mycology analisis revealed that the disease as caused by Alternaria alternata. Piraklostrobin (Signum 33 WG), grapefruit extract (Biosept Active) and tiofanat‐methyl (Topsin 500 M) greatly inhibited the growth and development of A. alternata. Total inhibition of the mycelium growth was observed after using piraklostrobin at the concentration of 250 μ g/cm³. Grapefruit extract and tiofanat‐methyl at the concentration of 250 μg/cm³ limited the mycelium growth in 70% and 80% respectively. Preventively and curatively use synthetic analogs of strobilurins Topsin and Biosept significantly reduced the development A. alternata.

Fungos em sementes de plantas ornamentais

Estudou-se a ocorrência de fungos em sementes de nove espécies de plantas ornamentais herbáceas (Dahlia pinnata, Petunia x hybrida, Phlox drummondii, Rudbeckia hirta, Salvia farinacea, Salvia splendens, Tagetes patula, Viola tricolor e Zinnia elegans) costumeiramente plantadas no Distrito Federal. O método de detecção utilizado foi o de papel de filtro ("blotter-test"), sendo que uma subamostra, de 100 sementes, de cada espécie foi submetida a assepsia com álcool 70% e hipoclorito de sódio 1% e outra não. Das amostras de sementes analisadas foram detectados e isolados 32 fungos, sendo 88% representantes do grupo dos fungos mitospóricos, 6% do filo Ascomycota, 3% do filo Zygomycota e 3% de organismos semelhantes à fungos do filo Oomycota. Os gêneros mais frequentemente encontrados foram Alternaria, Cladosporium, Bipolaris, Curvularia, Exerohilum, Aspergillus e Penicillium. O maior número de fungos ocorreu nas sementes de D. pinnata, T. patula e P. drummondii. Alternaria alternata, Alternaria spp, Bipolaris spp., Curvularia lunata, C. protuberata, Exserohilum sp., Phoma glomerata, P. multirostrata, Pythium sp. e Ulocladium atrum podem, por indícios literários, ser um relato pioneiro em algumas das plantas de ornamentais. Possivelmente, no Brasil este é o primeiro relato de: Alternaria alternata em sementes de Dahlia pinnata, Salvia farinacea, S. splendens e Tagetes patula; Curvularia lunata em sementes de Rudbeckia hirta e T. patula; C. protuberata ePhoma glomerata em Zinnia elegans; Phoma multirostrata em Salvia splendens, e; Ulocladium atrum em semente de Viola tricolor.

Growth, Gas Exchange, and Chlorophyll Fluorescence of Four Ornamental Herbaceous Perennials during Water Deficit Conditions

A study was conducted to characterize the morphological and physiological responses of four herbaceous perennial species subjected to two subsequent drought cycles. Lantana camara L. `New Gold' (lantana), Lobelia cardinalis L. (cardinal flower), Salvia farinacea Benth. `Henry Duelberg' (mealy sage), and Scaevola aemula R. Br. `New Wonder' (fan flower) were subjected to two consecutive 10-day drought cycles. Growth response, leaf gas exchange, and chlorophyll fluorescence were measured during the experiment. The morphology of L. cardinalis and L. camara was not affected by drought, while S. farinacea had reductions in plant height and leaf area and S. aemula had reductions in dry weight. Overall, plant growth and development continued even when substrate water content was reduced to 0.13 mm3·mm-3, which indicated a level of substrate water below container capacity was sufficient for greenhouse production of these species. The drought treatments had little effect on the photochemical efficiency (Fv/Fm) of Photosystem II. An increase in minimal fluorescence (Fo) was observed in S. aemula on the last day of the second cycle. Drought treatment caused increased leaf-level water use efficiency (WUE) at the end of the first cycle in L. cardinalis and S. aemula, but not in L. camara and S. farinacea. Plants of L. camara, S. farinacea, and S. aemula that had received drought during both cycles became more water use efficient by the end of the second cycle, but L. cardinalis did not.

Does interaction between bumblebees (Bombus ignitus) reduce their foraging area?: bee-removal experiments in a net cage

To examine whether the interaction between bumblebees, Bombus ignitus, reduces their foraging area, we conducted bee-removal experiments in a net cage. In the cage, we set potted Salvia farinacea plants, allowed bumblebees to forage freely on those plants, and followed their plant-to-plant movements to identify a bee with a relatively small foraging area. We then removed all the other foraging bees, except for the bee with a small foraging area, and observed the change of the foraging area of the focal bee under conditions of no interaction with other bees. After the removal of the other bees, all five bees tested enlarged their foraging areas, suggesting that the interaction between bees is an important determinant of their foraging areas. The result also means that bumblebees are able to adjust their foraging areas in response to other foragers, indicating the necessity for future studies to clarify what cues bees use to interact with other bees. Moreover, after the removal treatments, all five bees showed temporary increases in the number of flower probes per plant. This can be explained by their optimal foraging according to the “old” average intake rate for the plant population and by the delayed changes in response to the “new” high average energy intake rate after the bee-removal treatments.