Maxillary Gland Research Articles

Evolution of ion transporter Na+/K+-ATPase expression in the osmoregulatory maxillary glands of an invasive copepod

While many freshwater invaders originate from saline habitats, the physiological mechanisms involved are poorly understood. We investigated the evolution of ion transporter Na+/K+-ATPase (NKA) protein expression between ancestral saline and freshwater invading populations of the copepod Eurytemora carolleae (Atlantic clade of the E.affinis complex). We compared in situ NKA expression between populations under common-garden conditions at three salinities in the maxillary glands. We found the evolution of reduced NKA expression in the freshwater population under freshwater conditions and reduced plasticity (canalization) across salinities, relative to the saline population. Our results support the hypothesis that maxillary glands are involved in ion reabsorption from excretory fluids at low-salinity conditions in the saline population. However, mechanisms of freshwater adaptation, such as increased ion uptake from the environment, might reduce the need for ion reabsorption in the freshwater population. These patterns of ion transporter expression contribute insights into the evolution of ionic regulation during habitat change.

Histological Changes Of Bee Worker (Apis mellifera L.) By Bee Venom And Amino Acids Feeding

The effect of feeding honey bee colonies on a sugar solution to which ‎bee ‎venom has been added at a concentration of 5‎‏0‏‎ mg/liter sugar solution ‎and on amino ‎acids extracted from clover 4 cm amino acids/liter sugar ‎solution on the amount of ‎food consumed by honey bee workers as well as ‎the effect on gland tissues ‎Hypopharyngeal and maxillary glands and ‎histological changes that occur in them. ‎Nine honeybee colonies were tested in an apiary of the Bee Research ‎Department, Plant Protection ‎Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center, ‎Ministry of Agriculture, ‎Giza, Egypt, during 2020-2021. Statistically, there are no significant differences in the amount of food consumed by honeybee workers, whether the bee venom solution or the amino acid solution, ‎compared to ‎the control colonies that fed on the sugar solution only. No histological changes were observed in the ‎hypopharyngeal (HPGs) and mandibular‎ ‎glands (MGs) in workers fed sugary solution (control colonies). Feeding ‎with ‎amino acids resulted in histological ‎changes in the HPGs and MGs, ‎ as most of the ‎acini were atrophic and smaller ‎in size than usual, with the loss of vesicles in the ‎cytoplasm. As for the bees ‎that fed on a solution of bee venom, histological changes ‎ in the HPGs and ‎MGs were observed, where severe atrophy and contraction of the ‎acini with ‎an irregular outline were noted. Nuclear thickening of the ‎‎epithelial cell lining was observed. The histological structure of the lower glands ‎showed ‎atrophy in some individual cells, which led to damage to the ‎development of both the ‎HPGs and MGs.‎

A new species of Odorrana Fei, Ye & Huang, 1990 (Amphibia, Anura, Ranidae) from central Guangxi, China with a discussion of the taxonomy of Odorrana (Bamburana).

A new species of odorous frog, Odorranadamingshanensissp. nov., was found at the Damingshan National Nature Reserve in Guangxi, China. This species can be distinguished from its congeners by a combination of the following characters: medium body size (SVL 52.3-54.8 mm in males and 74.8-81.2 mm in females), sawtooth spinules on the upper lip, obtusely rounded snout that extends beyond the lower margin, distinct dorsolateral folds, horny tubercles on the rear of the back, presence of outer metatarsal tubercles, dilated nuptial pad with velvety spinules, distinct maxillary gland with tiny spines, and external lateral vocal sac. Through analysis of the 16S mitochondria gene, the new species is closely related to O.nasica and O.yentuensis, but the genetic divergence between the new species and the latter exceeds 7% (uncorrected p-distance). Currently, the new species is only known from its original discovery site. Furthermore, a discussion on the taxonomy of Odorrana (Bamburana) was conducted, identifying seven species within the subgenus Odorrana (Bamburana).

Antitumor Effect of Poplar Propolis on Human Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma A431 Cells

Propolis is a gelatinous substance processed by western worker bees from the resin of plant buds and mixed with the secretions of the maxillary glands and beeswax. Propolis has extensive biological activities and antitumor effects. There have been few reports about the antitumor effect of propolis against human cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (CSCC) A431 cells and its potential mechanism. CCK-8 assays, label-free proteomics, RT–PCR, and a xenograft tumor model were employed to explore this possibility. The results showed that the inhibition rate of A431 cell proliferation by the ethanol extract of propolis (EEP) was dose-dependent, with an IC50 of 39.17 μg/mL. There were 193 differentially expressed proteins in the EEP group compared with the control group (p < 0.05), of which 103 proteins (53.37%) were upregulated, and 90 proteins (46.63%) were downregulated. The main three activated and suppressed Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways were extracellular matrix (ECM)-receptor interaction, amoebiasis, cell adhesion molecules (CAMs), nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), retrograde endocannabinoid signaling, and Alzheimer’s disease. The tumor volume of the 100 mg/kg EEP group was significantly different from that of the control group (p < 0.05). These results provide a theoretical basis for the potential treatment of human CSCC A431 cell tumors using propolis.

Synchrotron-Based X-ray Fluorescence Imaging Elucidates Uranium Toxicokinetics in Daphnia magna.

A combination of synchrotron-based elemental analysis and acute toxicity tests was used to investigate the biodistribution and adverse effects in Daphnia magna exposed to uranium nanoparticle (UNP, 3-5 nm) suspensions or to uranium reference (Uref) solutions. Speciation analysis revealed similar size distributions between exposures, and toxicity tests showed comparable acute effects (UNP LC50: 402 μg L-1 [336-484], Uref LC50: 268 μg L-1 [229-315]). However, the uranium body burden was 3- to 5-fold greater in UNP-exposed daphnids, and analysis of survival as a function of body burden revealed a ∼5-fold higher specific toxicity from the Uref exposure. High-resolution X-ray fluorescence elemental maps of intact, whole daphnids from sublethal, acute exposures of both treatments revealed high uranium accumulation onto the gills (epipodites) as well as within the hepatic ceca and the intestinal lumen. Uranium uptake into the hemolymph circulatory system was inferred from signals observed in organs such as the heart and the maxillary gland. The substantial uptake in the maxillary gland and the associated nephridium suggests that these organs play a role in uranium removal from the hemolymph and subsequent excretion. Uranium was also observed associated with the embryos and the remnants of the chorion, suggesting uptake in the offspring. The identification of target organs and tissues is of major importance to the understanding of uranium and UNP toxicity and exposure characterization that should ultimately contribute to reducing uncertainties in related environmental impact and risk assessments.

Effects of Bee Pollen Derived from Acer mono Maxim. or Phellodendron amurense Rupr. on the Lipid Composition of Royal Jelly Secreted by Honeybees.

Royal jelly is a specific product secreted by honeybees, and has been sought after to maintain health because of its valuable bioactive substances, e.g., lipids and vitamins. The lipids in royal jelly come from the bee pollen consumed by honeybees, and different plant source of bee pollen affects the lipid composition of royal jelly. However, the effect of bee pollen consumption on the lipid composition of royal jelly remains unclear. Herein, we examined the influence of two factors on the lipid composition of royal jelly: first, two plant sources of bee pollen, i.e., Acer mono Maxim. (BP-Am) and Phellodendron amurense Rupr. (BP-Pa); secondly, different feeding times. Lipidomic analyses were conducted on the royal jelly produced by honeybees fed BP-Am or BP-Pa using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UPLC)-Q-Exactive Orbitrap mass spectrometry. The results showed that the phospholipid and fatty acid contents differed in royal jelly produced by honeybees fed BP-Am compared to those fed BP-Pa. There were also differences between timepoints, with many lipid compounds decreasing in abundance soon after single-pollen feeding began, slowly increasing over time, then decreasing again after 30 days of single-pollen feeding. The single bee pollen diet destroyed the nutritional balance of bee colonies and affected the development of hypopharyngeal and maxillary glands, resulting in differences in royal jelly quality. This study provides guidance for optimal selection of honeybee feed for the production of high-quality royal jelly.

PREVALENCE OF ENTAMOEBA GINGIVALIS AND TRICHOMONAS TENAX AMONG HEALTHY AND PATIENTS WITH PERIODONTAL DISEASE IN BENGHAZI – LIBYA.

The oral cavity of human is colonized by many microorganisms among these Trichomonas tenax and Entamoeba gingivalis, is known as common parasite of oral cavity and sub maxillary glands especially with poor oral hygiene and presence of periodontal disease. This paper describes the prevalence and patterns of Entamoeba gingivalis and Trichomona stenaxin person with and without periodontitis in Benghazi, Libya, emphasizing on the gender, age, pH of the saliva, smoking habit. Methods Bio film and saliva samples were taken from 70 patients with periodontitis and 30 healthy individuals. They were spread on sterile swab sample, diluted with saline and examined with a light microscope. Descriptive statistic and chi-square test were used. The overall prevalence of oral parasitic infections among individuals of the sample participant was 24\100 (24%), the prevalence of Trichomonastenax (31.6%) and Entamoeba gingivalis (68.4%) among individuals with periodontal disease, while Trichomonas tenax recorded (20% ) and Entamoeba gingivalis (80%) among healthy gingival individuals there was a high significant difference between periodontal disease compared to healthy gingival group (P=0.000) in the rate of harboring these parasitic infections. Prevalence of oral parasitic infections among individuals of the sample participant was 24\100 (24%). However, further studies are needed to determine the relationship between these species and periodontitis.

Morphological adaptations to silk production by adult females in the pollen wasp genus Quartinia (Masarinae, Vespidae) – a keystone character for ground nesting in dry sand habitats

While many pollen wasps nest in hard clayey soil or in rigid sand or use these kinds of substrates to build aerial earthen cells, all representatives of the genus Quartinia, in which nesting behavior has been studied so far, construct their nests in habitats with loose sand. The walls of the burrow are stabilized by a silky excretion that is applied on their inner surfaces during nest construction. The lining-behavior of Quartinia females is described. Representatives of the genus Quartinia and other pollen wasp taxa have been studied comparatively using histology, microcomputed tomography and scanning electron microscopy for identifying the structures correlated with lining-behavior. Thus, we can document a change in the morphology of the maxillary gland for females of the genus Quartinia, as well as the existence of a process of the galea which likely serves the production of the silky threads. The fact that these modifications are missing in males is corroborating their function in brood care. Two possible ways of silk thread production are discussed. The newly discovered structures are key adaptations of the genus Quartinia that enabled the inhabitation of new habitats and thus probably facilitated the species diversification of this genus.

Morphology of the exocrine glands associated with the maxillolabial complex in the ant Camponotus japonicus Mayr, 1866 (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

In this study, we investigated the morphological characteristics of three glands that are associated with the labium and the maxillae in the female castes as well as males of the ant Camponotus japonicus Mayr, 1866 using serial semithin sections and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). We propose to name these glands as the postmentum base gland, the stipes base gland and the cardo base gland. The cardo base gland represents what was previously known as the maxillary gland, the two other glands are novel findings. They all belong to class-3 glands and have no reservoir for the storage of secretion. Their morphology is similar among the studied categories (major worker, minor worker, queen and male). The postmentum base gland is made up by 10–15 secretory units that open through the articulation membrane on both sides of the base of the labial postmentum with no significant differences among castes. The stipes base gland is formed by a cluster of secretory units that open at the articulation membrane between cardo and stipes. This gland is much larger in major workers (almost 140 cells) than in the other castes (approx. 50–60 cells). The cardo base gland opens through the membrane that connects the cardo and stipes to the head capsule. The number of cells of this gland is much larger in major workers and queens (approximately 190 and 150, respectively) than in minor workers and males (approximately 45 and 40, respectively). No information is yet available on the function of the glands.

Quel impact de la RCMI des carcinomes nasopharyngés sur les structures glandulaires ?

PurposeThe aim of this work is to evaluate the anatomical changes of the glandular structures during the NPC IMRT and to study their dosimetric impacts. Patients and methodsTwenty patients receiving IMRT for NPC were included. For each patient, a second dosimetric CT was performed at a dose of 38Gy, which was fused with the initial planning dosimetric CT. We calculated the volume percent change, the positional and dosimetric variation between the 2 scanners for the glandular structures (parotid, submaxillary, thyroid and pituitary). ResultsWe observed a decrease in the volume of right and left parotids (−27.9% and −27.54%). It was correlated with the initial dose planned at its level. For the sub maxillary glands, the decrease was −36.1% on the right and −27.28% on the left. The value of reduction of the thyroid gland was −18.01%. A medial supra-millimeter migration of 2 and 1.15mm was found for right and left parotid glands respectively, correlated with GTV N reduction volume. We found a significant increase in mean doses for the parotid glands. It was 1.8±2.3Gy for the right and 1.5±2.7Gy for the left. For the right sub maxillary gland, the increase was about 0.35±2Gy and 3.79±5.2Gy for the thyroid. ConclusionThe modifications observed for glandular structures during NPC IMRT can explain the different toxicities caused by radiation. It seems also that a careful adaptation of the treatment plan should be considered during therapy.

Osmoregulatory performance and immunolocalization of Na+/K+-ATPase in the branchiopod Artemia salina from the Sebkha of Sidi El Hani (Tunisia)

Artemia salina is an extremophile species that tolerates a wide range of salinity, especially hypertonic media considered lethal for the majority of other aquatic species. In this study, A. salina cysts were hatched in the laboratory and nauplii were acclimated at three different salinities (60, 139 and 212 ppt). Once in the adult phase, their hemolymph osmolality was measured. The animals were strong hypo-osmoregulators in the entire range of tested salinities, with up to 10 fold lower hemolymph osmolalities than their surrounding environment. Immunostaining of Na+/K+-ATPase was done on sections and on whole body mounts of adults in order to localize the ionocytes in different organs. An intense Na+/K+-ATPase immunostaining throughout the cells was observed in the epithelium of the ten pairs of metepipodites. A positive immunoreactivity for Na+/K+-ATPase was also detected in the maxillary glands, in the epithelium of the efferent tubule and of the excretory canal, as well as in the anterior digestive tract. This study confirms the strong hypo-osmotic capacity of this species and affords an overview of the different organs involved in osmoregulation in A. salina adults.

Small, but oh my! Head morphology of adult Aleuropteryx spp. and effects of miniaturization (Insecta: Neuroptera: Coniopterygidae)

We present the first morphological study of the internal head structures of adults of the coniopterygid genus Aleuropteryx, which belong to the smallest known lacewings. The head is ventrally closed with a gula, which is unique in adult Neuroptera and otherwise developed in Megaloptera, the sister group of Neuroptera. The dorsal tentorial arms are directed posteriorly and fused, forming an arch that fulfills functions otherwise taken by the tentorial bridge. A newly found maxillary gland is present in both sexes.Several structural modifications correlated with miniaturization are recognized: a relative increase in the size of the brain, a reduction in the number of ommatidia and diameter of the facets, a countersunken cone-shaped ocular ridge, and a simplification of the tracheal system. The structure of the head differs strikingly from that of the previously studied species Coniopteryx pygmaea, indicating a greater variability in the family Coniopterygidae, which might be another effect of miniaturization.

Parotid ductal carcinoma: About a case

Canal carcinoma of the salivary glands is a very rare tumor. It sits preferentially in the parotid gland, in the maxillary gland and exceptionally in the accessory salivary glands. We report the case of a 57 year old patient, with no specific medical history. She presented for a left parotid swelling evolving for 2 months, without other signs associated with the origin of the discovery of a rare entity of carcinomas parotidiens, characterized histologically by its great resemblance to the non-specific carcinoma of the breast formerly called ductal carcinoma of the breast. The diagnosis is based on a good anatomo-clinical and immunohistochemical correlation.

Application of 188Re-labeled BaGdF5-PEG nanoparticles on the growth inhibition of hepatoma cells and the SPECT imaging in rabbit models

Objective To investigate the inhibitory effect of 188Re-labeled BaGdF5-poly(ethylene glycol)(PEG) nanoparticles (NPs) on hepatoma cells, and explore the application of the radiolabeled NPs for SPECT imaging. Methods BaGdF5-PEG NPs were synthesized by hydrothermal method, and were further radiolabeled with 188Re using diethylene triamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA) as a coupling agent. The human hepatoma cells SMCC 7721 were treated with different concentrations of BaGdF5-PEG NPs, 188ReO4- or 188Re-DTPA-BaGdF5 NPs (14.8, 74.0, 370.0×104 Bq/ml) for 24 h, and then the cell proliferation rates were measured by 3-(4, 5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2, 5-diphenyl-2-H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. 188ReO4- and 188Re-DTPA-BaGdF5 NPs were administrated into normal rabbits via the ear vein, respectively. For the former, static SPECT/CT imaging were performed at 30, 60 min post-injection, and for the latter, dynamic SPECT images were captured within 10 min, and static SPECT/CT images at 30, 60, 120 min post-injection. The rabbit VX2 tumor model was established, and a microcatheter was inserted into hepatic artery via the rabbit femoral artery, and then the mixture of 188Re-DTPA-BaGdF5 NPs and lipiodol was injected into the tumor region. SPECT/CT imaging for VX2 tumor was performed at 30 min later. Data were analyzed by two-sample t test. Results The BaGdF5-PEG NPs were nearly square and the particle size was about 10 nm. The labeling yield of 188Re-DTPA-BaGdF5 was 94.1% at the optimum conditions. Moreover, it showed high stability in vitro and in vivo. In vitro, BaGdF5-PEG NPs did not exhibit obvious cytotoxicity even at a high concentration. Both 188ReO4- and 188Re-DTPA-BaGdF5 could inhibit the proliferation of SMCC 7721 cells, but 188Re-DTPA-BaGdF5 showed a significantly stronger inhibitory effect at the doses of 74.0 and 370.0×104 Bq/ml (t values: 4.21, 4.09, both P<0.01). In vivo,188ReO4- was absorbed by maxillary glands and was quickly eliminated from blood via the kidneys. The 188Re-DTPA-BaGdF5 NPs mainly accumulated in the liver and spleen. In addition, retention and accumulation of 188Re-DTPA-BaGdF5 NPs in the liver tumor could be achieved by using transarterial intervention technique for drug delivery. Conclusion 188Re-DTPA-BaGdF5 NPs have certain killing effects on hepatoma cells in vitro, and with the help of transarterial intervention technique, the NPs can be aggregated within liver tumor, where they not only can be used for SPECT imaging, but also have potential therapeutic effects. Key words: Liver neoplasms; Tumor cells, cultured; Nanoparticles; Rhenium; Tomography, emission-computed, single-photon; Tomography, X-ray computed; Rabbits

PACULARITIES OF EMBRYOGENESIS OF NASAL REGION CONSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURES IN SOME MAMMALS

The aim of the study was to determine general regularities and specific features of prenatal morphogenesis of nasal region and structures in a human being and some mammals. We studied 75 specimens of human fetuses and embryos and 85 mammals’ specimens in different periods of prenatal development by using complex of morphological methods (anthropometry, morphometrics, microscopy, three-dimensional computer constructing, and statistical analysis). It has been determined that morphogenesis of the nasal region in mammals has the following general features: a) development of the nasal cavity begins with nasal placodes that have ectodermal origin; b) formation of the nasal cavity passes five sequential stages: the olfactory placode, nasal fossa, nasal sacks, primary nasal cavity and definitive nasal cavity; c) the formation of nasal cavity obligatory includes physiological atresia of nostrils, nasal-palatine channels and ducts of vomeronasal organ which precedes the process of palatine processes becoming horizontal. Vomeronasal organ in studied species is established as a region of epithelium in the anterio-inferior part of the nasal septum, has medial orientation and is connected with nasal cavity. Majority of studied species show that glands of maxillary sinus begin their development on the 12-13th stage of embryogenesis, respiratory glands – on 15-16th. Vomeronasal and olfactory glands glands begin to form later on 14-15th stages.Formation of nasal glands in white rats occurs at earlier stages. Regularities of nasal glands morphogenesis have certain development sequences: first develops lateral nasal gland, then maxillary sinus glands, then respiratory and olfactory. Nasal cavity of embryos at 16th stage of development includes the following glands: pair lateral nasal gland (except humans), single respiratory, olfactory and maxillary glands. In some animals two pairs of anterior medial glands (in rodents) and a pair of vomeronasal nasal glands (in rodents and carnivores) were identified.

STRUCTURAL PACULARITIES OF NASAL REGION IN PRENATAL PERIOD OF MAMMALIAN ONTOGENESIS

The aim of the study was to clarify specific structural features of prenatal morphogenesis of nasal region structures in human and some mammals. 75 specimens of human fetuses and embryos and 85 mammalian specimens in different periods of prenatal development were examined using a complex of morphological methods (anthropometry, morphometrics, microscopy, three-dimensional computer reconstruction and statistical analysis). Species differences of nasal region structures in studied mammals were found to be associated with the shape of the nasal cavity, the structure of secondary palate bone, the number and developmental degree of nasal cavities, paranasal sinuses. These differences are caused by nutrition features, nature of dental structure, degree of brain development, intensity of respiration and animals’ conditions of existence. In humans the lateral nasal gland is not found, however, respiratory, olfactory and maxillary glands are well-developed.

Molecular Phylogeny of Acerentomidae (Protura), with Description ofAcerentuloides bernardisp. nov. from North America

The closely related genera Acerentulus Berlese, 1908 and Acerentuloides Ewing, 1921 are represented in the USA by only 3 species: Acerentulus confinis (Berlese, 1908), Acerentulus christensoni (Ewing, 1940), and Acerentuloides americanus (Ewing, 1924). Study of proturan material from North America yielded a new species belonging to Acerentuloides. The new species is characterized by the absence of seta sd4 on the head, presence of a minute apical median seta on abdominal legs II and III, unique shape of maxillary gland with distal row of clustered globules, presence of setae modified as short, thickened sensilla (sd5 on head, β1 and δ4 on foretarsus, setae P4 on metanotum and A2 on thoracic sterna, and accessory setae on tergites and sternites I–VI), absence of seta P1a on abdominal tergites I–VI, foretarsal sensillum b longer than c, and presence of psl pores only on tergite VI. Molecular sequences for several Acerentomidae, including A. confinis, were used to develop hypotheses about species relationships within Acerentomidae.

Comparative morphogenesis of nasal region in human and some mammals.

Background . Comparative anatomical and embryological research has not lost its relevance in the wide field of human body structures and systems studying. Analysis of current scientific literature concludes that the problem of prenatal morphogenesis of the nasal cavity structures in comparative embryological aspect still remains unsolved. Objective . The aim of the study was to clarify specific structural features of nasal region structures during prenatal morphogenesis in human and some mammals. Materials and methods. Research was conducted on 75 specimens of human fetuses and embryos and 85 mammals’ specimens in different periods of prenatal development by using complex of morphological methods (anthropometry, morphometrics, microscopy, three-dimensional computer reconstruction and statistical analysis). Results . At the end of the fetal period of ontogenesis, nasal region in studied mammalian species acquires features of a definitive structure. It is surrounded by cartilaginous nasal capsule, to the exterior surface of which are adjacent dorsally - nasal and partly frontal bones, lateral - maxillary bones. Nasal cavity is delimited from the cranial cavity by cribriform plate of sphenoid, which consists of cartilage. Nasal cavity is divided into two halves by cartilaginous nasal septum, which aborally proceeds into cartilaginous skull base, dorsally – into the vault of nasal capsule. Ventral wall of nasal cavity consists of paraseptal cartilages and secondary bone palate. Conclusions . It was found that differences of nasal region structure in studied mammals were associated with form of nasal cavity, structure of secondary palate bone, number and developmental degree of nasal cavities and paranasal sinuses. This differences are caused by nutrition features, nature of dental armament, degree of brain development, intensity of respiration and animals’ conditions of existence. In humans lateral nasal gland is absent, however respiratory, olfactory and maxillary glands are well developed.

The Snake with the Scorpion's Sting: Novel Three-Finger Toxin Sodium Channel Activators from the Venom of the Long-Glanded Blue Coral Snake (Calliophis bivirgatus).

Millions of years of evolution have fine-tuned the ability of venom peptides to rapidly incapacitate both prey and potential predators. Toxicofera reptiles are characterized by serous-secreting mandibular or maxillary glands with heightened levels of protein expression. These glands are the core anatomical components of the toxicoferan venom system, which exists in myriad points along an evolutionary continuum. Neofunctionalisation of toxins is facilitated by positive selection at functional hotspots on the ancestral protein and venom proteins have undergone dynamic diversification in helodermatid and varanid lizards as well as advanced snakes. A spectacular point on the venom system continuum is the long-glanded blue coral snake (Calliophis bivirgatus), a specialist feeder that preys on fast moving, venomous snakes which have both a high likelihood of prey escape but also represent significant danger to the predator itself. The maxillary venom glands of C. bivirgatus extend one quarter of the snake’s body length and nestle within the rib cavity. Despite the snake’s notoriety its venom has remained largely unstudied. Here we show that the venom uniquely produces spastic paralysis, in contrast to the flaccid paralysis typically produced by neurotoxic snake venoms. The toxin responsible, which we have called calliotoxin (δ-elapitoxin-Cb1a), is a three-finger toxin (3FTx). Calliotoxin shifts the voltage-dependence of NaV1.4 activation to more hyperpolarised potentials, inhibits inactivation, and produces large ramp currents, consistent with its profound effects on contractile force in an isolated skeletal muscle preparation. Voltage-gated sodium channels (NaV) are a particularly attractive pharmacological target as they are involved in almost all physiological processes including action potential generation and conduction. Accordingly, venom peptides that interfere with NaV function provide a key defensive and predatory advantage to a range of invertebrate venomous species including cone snails, scorpions, spiders, and anemones. Enhanced activation or delayed inactivation of sodium channels by toxins is associated with the extremely rapid onset of tetanic/excitatory paralysis in envenomed prey animals. A strong selection pressure exists for the evolution of such toxins where there is a high chance of prey escape. However, despite their prevalence in other venomous species, toxins causing delay of sodium channel inhibition have never previously been described in vertebrate venoms. Here we show that NaV modulators, convergent with those of invertebrates, have evolved in the venom of the long-glanded coral snake. Calliotoxin represents a functionally novel class of 3FTx and a structurally novel class of NaV toxins that will provide significant insights into the pharmacology and physiology of NaV. The toxin represents a remarkable case of functional convergence between invertebrate and vertebrate venom systems in response to similar selection pressures. These results underscore the dynamic evolution of the Toxicofera reptile system and reinforces the value of using evolution as a roadmap for biodiscovery.

Discovery of the male of the rare caligiform copepod Kabataia Kazachenko, Korotaeva & Kurochkin, 1972 (Copepoda: Siphonostomatoida), with a reconsideration of its phylogenetic affinities.

We report the discovery of the male of the rare caligiform copepod Kabataia ostorhynchi Kazachenko, Korotaeva & Kurochkin, 1972 on the gills of the type-host Oplegnathus woodwardi (Waite, 1900) captured in the Southern Ocean, off Australia. Light and scanning electron microscopy confirmed the unusual body plan of Kabataia Kazachenko, Korotaeva & Kurochkin, 1972, where only the first pedigerous somite is incorporated into the cephalothorax and the second and third pedigerous somites are fused to form a double-somite, visible both dorsally and ventrally. The adult female carries paired dorsal plates originating from the second pedigerous somite within this double-somite. In the male the second and third pedigerous somites are free and paired dorsal plates are present on the former. Kabataia exhibits sexual dimorphism in an unusually wide range of limbs. Most remarkable is the tubular extension from the exit pore of the maxillary gland at the base of the maxilla which reaches beyond the anterior margin of the mouth tube; this is present in the male only. Kabataia exhibits a functional articulation between the first and second pedigerous somites and thus lacks the diagnostic apomorphy of the family Trebiidae (incorporation of both first and second pedigerous somites into the cephalothorax). We propose to transfer Kabataia to the Pandaridae, since it shares the key synapomorphies of this family. Furthermore, we propose to transfer Innaprokofevnas Kazachenko, 2001 to the Dissonidae, which leaves Trebius Krøyer, 1838 as the only genus within the Trebiidae. The correct spelling of Philorthragoriscus Horst, 1897 is noted.