Maternal Fish Consumption Research Articles

Association of maternal fish consumption and ω-3 supplement use during pregnancy with child autism-related outcomes: results from a cohort consortium analysis

BackgroundPrenatal fish intake is a key source of omega-3 (ω-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids needed for brain development, yet intake is generally low, and studies addressing associations with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and related traits are lacking. ObjectiveThis study aimed to examine associations of prenatal fish intake and ω-3 supplement use with both autism diagnosis and broader autism-related traits. MethodsParticipants were drawn from 32 cohorts in the Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes Cohort Consortium. Children were born between 1999 and 2019 and part of ongoing follow-up with data available for analysis by August 2022. Exposures included self-reported maternal fish intake and ω-3/fish oil supplement use during pregnancy. Outcome measures included parent report of clinician-diagnosed ASD and parent-reported autism-related traits measured by the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS)-second edition (n = 3939 and v3609 for fish intake analyses, respectively; n = 4537 and n = 3925 for supplement intake analyses, respectively). ResultsIn adjusted regression models, relative to no fish intake, fish intake during pregnancy was associated with reduced odds of autism diagnosis (odds ratio: 0.84; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.77, 0.92), and a modest reduction in raw total SRS scores (β: −1.69; 95% CI: −3.3, −0.08). Estimates were similar across categories of fish consumption from “any” or “less than once per week” to “more than twice per week.” For ω-3 supplement use, relative to no use, no significant associations with autism diagnosis were identified, whereas a modest relation with SRS score was suggested (β: 1.98; 95% CI: 0.33, 3.64). ConclusionsThese results extend previous work by suggesting that prenatal fish intake, but not ω-3 supplement use, may be associated with lower likelihood of both autism diagnosis and related traits. Given the low-fish intake in the United States general population and the rising autism prevalence, these findings suggest the need for better public health messaging regarding guidelines on fish intake for pregnant individuals.

A novel approach to assessing the joint effects of mercury and fish consumption on neurodevelopment in the New Bedford Cohort

Abstract Understanding health risks from methylmercury (MeHg) exposure is complicated by its link to fish consumption, which may confound or modify toxicities. One solution is to include fish intake and a biomarker of MeHg exposure in the same analytical model, but resulting estimates do not reflect the independent impact of accumulated MeHg or fish exposure. In fish-eating populations, this can be addressed by separating MeHg exposure into fish intake and average mercury content of the consumed fish. We assessed the joint association of prenatal MeHg exposure (maternal hair mercury level) and fish intake (among fish-eating mothers) with neurodevelopment in 361 children aged 8 years from the New Bedford Cohort (New Bedford, Massachusetts; born in 1993-1998). Neurodevelopmental assessments used standardized tests of IQ, language, memory, and attention. Covariate-adjusted regression assessed the association of maternal fish consumption, stratified by tertile of estimated average fish mercury level, with neurodevelopment. Associations between maternal fish intake and child outcomes were generally beneficial for those in the lowest average fish mercury tertile but detrimental in the highest average fish mercury tertile, where, for example, each serving of fish was associated with 1.3 fewer correct responses (95% CI, −2.2 to −0.4) on the Boston Naming Test. Standard analyses showed no outcome associations with hair mercury level or fish intake. This article is part of a Special Collection on Environmental Epidemiology.

Maternal diet quality with child allergic and respiratory multimorbidity in the Elfe birth cohort

Evidence linking maternal diet during pregnancy to allergic or respiratory diseases in children remains sparse, and outcomes were mainly studied separately. We aim to investigate these associations by considering clusters of allergic and respiratory multimorbidity among 9679 mother–child pairs from the Elfe birth cohort. Maternal diet quality was evaluated using a food-based score (Diet Quality score), a nutrient-based score (PANDiet score) and food group intakes. Adjusted multinomial logistic regressions on allergic and respiratory multimorbidity clusters up to 5.5 years were performed. Child allergic and respiratory diseases were described through five clusters: “asymptomatic” (43%, reference), “early wheeze without asthma” (34%), “asthma only” (7%), “allergies without asthma” (7%), “multi-allergic” (9%). A higher PANDiet score and an increased legume consumption were associated with a reduced risk of belonging to the “early wheeze without asthma” cluster. A U-shaped relationship was observed between maternal fish consumption and the “allergies without asthma” cluster. To conclude, adequate nutrient intake during pregnancy was weakly associated with a lower risk of “early wheeze without asthma” in children. No association was found with food groups, considered jointly or separately, except for legumes and fish, suggesting that maternal adherence to nutritional guidelines might be beneficial for allergic and respiratory diseases prevention.

Association between Prenatal Dietary Toxicants and Infant Neurodevelopment: The Role of Fish.

More research is needed to understand how the maternal consumption of fish and fish-borne toxicants impacts infant neurodevelopment. The present analysis was conducted over 460 mother-infant pairs within the ECLIPSES study. Dietary intake of metals and persistent organic pollutants from fish (including white fish, blue fish, and seafood) was estimated in pregnant women. The infants underwent cognitive, language, and motor function assessments using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development-III at the 40-day postpartum. Associations between dietary toxicants and outcomes were assessed using multivariable linear regression models. Estimated prenatal exposure to fish-borne toxicants, such as arsenic, inorganic arsenic, methylmercury, dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (DL-PCBs), and non-DL-PCBs, was associated with poorer language functions in infants, whereas no significant associations were found with motor or cognitive functions. Maternal fish consumption exceeding the Spanish recommendation of no more than 71 g per day was linked to these adverse effects on language abilities without affecting motor or cognitive development. This highlights the importance of vigilant monitoring of environmental toxicants and the provision of dietary guidance for pregnant women, with potential implications for public health and child development.

Metal (loid) Exposure and Overweight and Obesity in 6–12-Year-Old Spanish Children

AbstractEpidemiological studies focusing on metal(oid) exposure and excess body weight among children show inconsistent results and the influence of metal(loid) mixtures has been little studied. We aimed to explore the effect of 10 metal(loid)s, individually and in combinations, on overweight and obesity among children aged 6–12. Urinary levels of these metal(oid)s from 92 controls and 51 cases with overweight and obesity were analyzed. Metal(loid) levels were log-transformed and categorized into tertiles according to the control group cutoff points. Two logistic regression models and weighted quantile sum regressions (WQS) were run: model 1 adjusting for age, sex, creatinine, energy intake and physical activity and model 2 additionally adjusting for maternal education, rice and fish consumption. In the single metal(oid) exposure model, there was a trend of significant negative association for urinary cobalt (Co), where children in the third tertile had lower odds of present overweight and obesity than those in the first (Odds Ratio, OR = 0.43; 95% Confidence Interval, CI = 0.20–0.93). Urinary chromium (Cr) levels were borderline-significant negatively associated with overweight and obesity (ORa = 1.70; 95% CI = 0.97–2.98). Molybdemun, Cr and Co had a major contribution to the inverse association between metal(loid) mixture and overweight and obesity as well as lead, cadmium and total arsenic in the positive relationship. Our findings in this explorative study suggested an inverse association of high urinary Co levels with overweight and obesity. Moreover, metal(loid) mixture exposure may have influence on overweight and obesity with an important contribution of Co in the potential negative effect.

Maternal Seafood Consumption during Pregnancy and Cardiovascular Health of Children at 11 Years of Age.

Nutrition is critical during pregnancy for the healthy growth of the developing infant, who is fully dependent on maternal dietary omega-3 supply for development. Fatty fish, a main dietary source of omega-3, is associated with decreased cardiovascular risk in adults. We conducted a longitudinal study based on a mother-offspring cohort as part of the project Infancia y Medio Ambiente (INMA) in order to assess whether fish intake during pregnancy relates to cardiovascular health in children. A total of 657 women were included and followed throughout pregnancy until birth, and their children were enrolled at birth and followed up until age 11-12. A semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire was used to assess the daily intake of foods during the 1st and 3rd trimesters of pregnancy. Cardiovascular assessments included arterial stiffness (assessed by carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity [PWV]) and retinal microcirculation (photographic assessment of central retinal arteriolar and venular equivalent [CRAE and CRVE]). The association between maternal fish consumption and cardiovascular outcomes of offspring at 11 years of age was evaluated using multivariable linear regression models. There were no statistically significant differences in any cardiovascular endpoint in children whose mothers had a higher fish consumption during pregnancy compared to those with a lower fish consumption. We found a slightly higher PWV (β = 0.1, 95% CI = 0.0; 0.2, p for trend = 0.047) in children whose mothers had a higher consumption of canned tuna during the 1st trimester of pregnancy. Fish intake during pregnancy was found to be unrelated to the offspring's cardiovascular health at 11 years of age. The beneficial cardiovascular effects of fish consumption during pregnancy on the offspring are still inconclusive.

Net effects explains the benefits to children from maternal fish consumption despite methylmercury in fish

In 2001 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued precautionary advice to pregnant women to limit fish consumption over concern that the methylmercury content might harm their children’s neurodevelopment. This concern was based largely on results from an epidemiological study of mothers primarily exposed to methylmercury from consuming pilot whale. Subsequently, FDA and the World Health Organization/Food and Agriculture Organization (WHO/FAO) undertook independent assessments of fish consumption that considered net effects from both fish nutrients, primarily omega-3 fatty acids, as beneficial and methylmercury as harmful. Both assessments estimated that when mothers regularly consume fish during pregnancy, their children are likely to have improved neurodevelopment compared to children of non-fish eaters despite their exposure to methylmercury. These estimated improvements included gains of two to over five full scale IQ points from levels of maternal consumption that are achievable in most of the world. Consistent with those estimates, human research on fish consumption and child neurodevelopment from more than 200,000 mother-child pairs now collectively reports 51 beneficial associations with neurodevelopmental outcomes and three adverse associations, the latter with no discernable pattern. These associations include full scale IQ gains similar to, or somewhat higher than, those estimated by FDA and FAO/WHO. Also consistent with the FDA and FAO/WHO estimates, research has reported beneficial associations with fish consumption when pregnant women are exposed to methylmercury from fish in excess of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Reference Dose (RfD). Our analysis evaluates how the net effects approach as utilized by FDA and FAO/WHO provides a holistic explanation for these results with implications for public health policy. This concordance of net effects modeling and empirical scientific evidence supports a clarification of current public health recommendations to focus on greater fish consumption by pregnant women for their children’s neurodevelopment.

KEAP1 polymorphisms and neurodevelopmental outcomes in children with exposure to prenatal MeHg from the Seychelles Child Development Study Nutrition Cohort 2

BackgroundHumans differ in the metabolism of the neurotoxicant methyl mercury (MeHg). This variation may be partially due to variation in genes encoding the transcription factor Nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (NRF2) and its negative regulator Kelch-like ECH-Associated Protein 1 (KEAP1), which regulate glutathione and related transporter and antioxidant proteins that play a role in the metabolism and neurotoxicity of MeHg. AimTo elucidate a potential risk from genetic variation in NFE2L2 (encoding NRF2) and KEAP1 toward prenatal mercury exposure and child neurodevelopmental outcomes at 20 months and 7 years of age in a population with variable prenatal exposure to MeHg from maternal fish consumption. Material and MethodsNutrition Cohort 2 is a mother–child cohort in the Republic of Seychelles. Children were genotyped for NFE2L2 (rs2364723, rs13001694) and KEAP1 (rs8113472, rs9676881) polymorphisms (N = 1285 after removing siblings). Total mercury (Hg) was measured in cord blood as a biomarker for prenatal MeHg exposure. Child neurodevelopmental outcomes included the Bayley Scales of Infant Development II administered at 20 months of age, and outcomes across multiple neurodevelopmental domains from 14 tests administered in children and 3 instruments completed by parents when children were 7 years of age. ResultsThe mean cord blood MeHg concentration was 34 (95% CI 11, 75) µg/L. None of the four polymorphisms had a significant association (p < 0.05) with either cord MeHg or neurodevelopmental test results at 20 months. There were no significant associations between either NFE2L2 polymorphism and any developmental test scores. At 7 years, children carrying KEAP1 rs8113472 CA showed significantly worse performance on psychomotor function than children with the CC variant (finger tapping, dominant hand: β − 1.19, SE 0.34; finger tapping, non-dominant hand: β − 0.92, SE 0.31) and worse social communication (SCQ Total: β 0.65, SE 0.27). Children carrying rs8113472 AA, versus children with CC, showed significantly better performance on social communication (SRS Total: β − 8.88, SE 3.60). Children carrying KEAP1 rs9676881 AG, versus children with GG, showed significantly worse performance on psychomotor function (trailmaking A time: β 8.66, SE 3.37) and cognition (KBIT Matrices: β − 0.96, SE 0.36). ConclusionNo associations between NFE2L2 and KEAP1 polymorphisms and MeHg concentration were identified. However, at 7 years, KEAP1 polymorphisms were associated with differences in neurodevelopmental outcomes in children from a population with high fish intake.

Impact of Maternal Fish Consumption on Serum Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) Levels in Breastfed Infants: A Cross-Sectional Study of a Randomized Clinical Trial in Japan.

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), an essential n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (LCPUFA) abundant in fish, is crucial for infant brain development. We investigated the associations between maternal dietary habits, infant feeding patterns, and serum levels of DHA and other LCPUFAs in infants aged 5-6 months in Japan, where fish consumption is high. This cross-sectional study used serum samples from 268 infants enrolled in a randomized clinical trial. The frequency of mothers' consumption of 38 food items and infant feeding patterns were prospectively surveyed. Cow's milk formula (CMF) supplemented with 15.9% linolenic acid, 1.6% α-linolenic acid, 0.40% DHA, and 0.27% arachidonic acid was used. Significant positive associations with infants' serum DHA levels were found for "Blue-back fish" (rho = 0.24; p = 0.0001) and "White fish" (rho = 0.25, p = 0.0001). The combined variable "Blue-White fish" was found to be significantly associated with higher serum DHA levels in infants (rho = 0.29, p < 0.0001). Predominantly breastfed infants had significantly higher serum DHA levels than those fed more CMF (rho = 0.32, p < 0.0001). After multivariate analysis, "Blue-White fish" and "Feeding patterns" remained significantly and independently associated with serum DHA levels. These findings suggest that frequent consumption of "Blue-back fish" and/or "White fish" by lactating mothers, along with prioritizing breastfeeding over DHA-supplemented CMF, might effectively increase infants' serum DHA levels.

Niveles de vitamina D en sangre materna y su relación con el consumo de pescado y los parámetros antropométricos de los recién nacidos en una cohorte de parejas madre/hijos de Sevilla

IntroductionTo compare maternal vitamin D levels with the area of residence or the consumption of fish, as well as its relationship with the weight, length and cranial perimeter of babies. Materials and methodsCohort of 100 mother–child pairs (n=100) from the province of Seville (Virgen del Rocío University Hospital and Valme University Hospital). In maternal blood samples (gestational age≥40 weeks) 25(OH)D levels have been measured by chemiluminescence. Anthropometric measurements of the babies were made using standard methods. ResultsRegarding vitamin D levels, 54% had deficient values, 26% insufficient and 20% sufficient values. After a multiple regression analysis, it is observed that there is no significant difference between maternal vitamin D levels, the length and the cephalic perimeter of the babies, however, there is a difference with the birth weight (P<.05). When applying the t-Student and the Wilcoxon test, there is no relationship between vitamin D levels and the area of residence or with maternal fish consumption (both P>.05). ConclusionsEighty percent of mothers present deficient and insufficient values of vitamin D. There is no correlation between this parameter and the length and cephalic perimeter of the baby, observing a negative correlation with birth weight. No correlation was observed between the area of residence or the consumption of fish and vitamin D levels in mothers. We suggest dietary supplements for pregnant mothers and monitoring of vitamin D levels in babies.

Associations of metal mixtures in the meconium with birth outcomes in northern Taiwan.

Previous studies investigated prenatal exposure to neurotoxic metals in relation to birth anthropometrics. However, limited information has been developed on associations with birth outcomes of fetal exposure to metal mixtures using the meconium as a biomarker. The purpose of this study was to evaluate relationships of the combined effects of mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and arsenic (As) concentrations in the meconium on birth outcomes (i.e., birth weight, birth length, and head circumference). This cross-sectional study was conducted in northern Taiwan between January 2007 and December 2009. We collected 526 meconium samples within the first 24h after birth to measure the in utero mixed-metal exposure determined using inductively coupled plasma/mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). We used a multivariable regression and Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) to estimate associations of the combined effects and identify important mixture components with growth impairments. Our results revealed Hg, Pb, Cd, and As concentrations in the meconium and enhanced the quantity of research on meconium analyses. The overall effects of Hg, Pb, Cd, and As concentrations in the meconium as prenatal exposure biomarkers were negatively associated with birth growth. Fetal exposure to Hg and Pb was correlated with decreased birth weights. Hg and Pb concentrations in the meconium were linearly inversely related to the birth weight, birth length, and head circumference. Effects of fetal exposure to As and Cd on birth outcomes were not obvious. A significant increasing relationship was detected between Hg concentrations in the meconium and maternal fish consumption during pregnancy. Higher Pb concentrations in the meconium were observed among infants of mothers who consumed Chinese herbal medicines. Reducing maternal fish consumption and Chinese herbal medicine consumption during pregnancy could limit infant exposure to metals.

Maternal fish consumption and child neurodevelopment in Nutrition 1 Cohort: Seychelles Child Development Study.

Maternal fish consumption exposes the fetus to beneficial nutrients and potentially adverse neurotoxicants. The current study investigated associations between maternal fish consumption and child neurodevelopmental outcomes. Maternal fish consumption was assessed in the Seychelles Child Development Study Nutrition Cohort 1 (n 229) using 4-day food diaries. Neurodevelopment was evaluated at 9 and 30 months, and 5 and 9 years with test batteries assessing twenty-six endpoints and covering multiple neurodevelopmental domains. Analyses used multiple linear regression with adjustment for covariates known to influence child neurodevelopment. This cohort consumed an average of 8 fish meals/week and the total fish intake during pregnancy was 106·8 (sd 61·9) g/d. Among the twenty-six endpoints evaluated in the primary analysis there was one beneficial association. Children whose mothers consumed larger quantities of fish performed marginally better on the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (a test of nonverbal intelligence) at age 5 years (β 0·003, 95 % CI (0, 0·005)). A secondary analysis dividing fish consumption into tertiles found no significant associations when comparing the highest and lowest consumption groups. In this cohort, where fish consumption is substantially higher than current global recommendations, maternal fish consumption during pregnancy was not beneficially or adversely associated with children's neurodevelopmental outcomes.

Association between maternal fish consumption during pregnancy and preterm births: the Japan Environment and Children's Study.

Fish are a rich source of essential nutrients that protect against preterm birth. However, as fish can absorb environmental pollutants, their consumption can also increase the risk of preterm birth. This study aimed to assess whether maternal fish consumption during pregnancy is associated with preterm birth in a nationwide large Japanese cohort that consumed relatively high amounts and many types of fish. This study included 81,428 mother-child pairs enrolled in a nationwide prospective Japanese birth cohort study. Fish consumption was assessed using a validated food frequency questionnaire. Multivariate logistic regression was used to investigate the association of total consumption of fish, fatty fish and lean fish, fish paste, and seafood and clams with preterm birth, adjusted for potential confounders. There was no association between overall fish consumption and preterm births. However, the highest quintile of fish paste consumption was significantly associated with an increased risk of preterm birth (odds ratio [OR]: 1.11; 95% confidence interval [CI: 1.04, 1.17]). The consumption of baked fish paste at least three times per week was significantly associated with preterm birth (OR: 1.20; 95% CI: 1.03, 1.40). Consumption of other types of fish, except fish paste, was not significantly associated with preterm birth risk. Fish paste consumption may increase the risk of preterm birth. Further studies are required to confirm this association.

Prenatal mercury exposure, fish intake and child emotional behavioural regulation in the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study

ObjectiveWhile maternal fish consumption in pregnancy has consistently been linked to better cognitive and emotional outcomes in children, fish is also a primary source of exposure to methyl mercury (MeHg),...

Contribution of child ABC-transporter genetics to prenatal MeHg exposure and neurodevelopment

BackgroundThere is emerging evidence that exposure to prenatal methylmercury (MeHg) from maternal fish consumption during pregnancy can differ between individuals due to genetic variation. In previous studies, we have reported that maternal polymorphisms in ABC-transporter genes were associated with maternal hair MeHg concentrations, and with children’s early neurodevelopmental tests. In this study, we add to these findings by evaluating the contribution of genetic variation in children’s ABC-transporter genes to prenatal MeHg exposure and early child neurodevelopmental tests. MethodsWe genotyped six polymorphisms (rs2032582, rs10276499 and rs1202169 in ABCB1; rs11075290 and rs215088 in ABCC1; rs717620 in ABCC2) in DNA from cord blood and maternal blood of the Seychelles Child Development Study Nutrition Cohort 2. We determined prenatal MeHg exposure by measuring total mercury (Hg) in cord blood by atomic fluorescence spectrometry. We assessed neurodevelopment in children at approximately 20 months using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development (BSID-II). We used linear regression models to analyze covariate-adjusted associations of child genotype with cord MeHg and BSID-II outcomes (Mental Developmental and Psychomotor Developmental Indexes). We also evaluated interactions between genotypes, cord MeHg, and neurodevelopmental outcomes. All models were run with and without adjustment for maternal genotype. ResultsOf the six evaluated polymorphisms, only ABCC1 rs11075290 was associated with cord blood MeHg; children homozygous for the T-allele had on average 29.99 µg/L MeHg in cord blood while those homozygous for the C-allele had on average 38.06 µg/L MeHg in cord blood (p < 0.001). No polymorphisms in the children were associated with either subscale of the BSID. However, the association between cord MeHg and the Mental Developmental Index (MDI) of the BSID differed significantly across the three genotypes of ABCB1 rs10276499 (2df F-test, p = 0.045). With increasing cord MeHg, the MDI decreased (slope=−0.091, p = 0.014) among children homozygous for the rare C-allele. ConclusionsThese findings support the possibility that child ABC genetics might influence prenatal MeHg exposure.

Maternal fish and shellfish consumption and preterm birth: a retrospective study in urban China.

Preterm birth is the leading cause of perinatal mortality and morbidity. Some prospective cohort studies suggested that fish and shellfish consumption may affect the incidence of preterm birth. However, conflicting evidence exists on the relationship between fish and shellfish consumption and preterm birth. A total of 10179 women from Gansu province were interviewed after delivery to collect information on their past intake of fish and shellfish using FFQ. Logistic regression models were used to estimate OR and 95 % CI to examine the association between fish and shellfish consumption and preterm birth and its clinical subtypes. Fish and shellfish consumption was associated with reduced risk of preterm birth (OR = 0·65, 95 % CI 0·56, 0·77). Increasing frequency of fish and shellfish consumption, compared with no fish and shellfish consumption, was associated with decreasing odds of preterm birth. Besides, increasing weekly total amount of fish and shellfish consumption, compared with no fish and shellfish consumption, was also associated with decreasing odds of preterm birth. Significant trend effect was also seen between fish and shellfish consumption and very preterm birth (Pfor trend = 0·001) and spontaneous preterm birth (Pfor trend = 0·003). Interaction was observed between total fish and shellfish consumption with maternal age (Pfor interaction = 0·041) and pre-pregnancy BMI underweight (Pfor interaction = 0·012). Our findings showed that maternal fish and shellfish consumption was associated with lower incidence of preterm birth.We recommend for the national guideline of ≥350 g/week of fish and shellfish consumption among pregnant women.

Influence of Maternal Lifestyle and Diet on Perinatal DNA Methylation Signatures Associated With Childhood Arterial Stiffness at 8 to 9 Years.

[Figure: see text].

Maternal Cod Intake during Pregnancy and Infant Development in the First Year of Life: Secondary Analyses from a Randomized Controlled Trial.

Maternal seafood intake during pregnancy is associated with child neurodevelopment. No randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have examined the effect of maternal lean fish consumption during pregnancy on child neurodevelopment. The objective of the study was to examine the effect of increased maternal cod intake during pregnancy on infant general and socio-emotional development in the first year of life, and whether any effects observed were mediated by maternal iodine status. In an RCT, 133 pregnant women (≤19 weeks of gestation) were randomly assigned to receive 200 g cod fillet twice weekly (intervention) or to continue with their habitual diet (control) for 16 wk. The mothers completed the developmental screening questionnaires Ages and Stages Questionnaire, 2nd edition (ASQ-2) and Ages and Stages Questionnaire: Social-Emotional (ASQ:SE) when the infants were 3, 6, and 11 mo old. We compared scores between groups using linear mixed-effects models and examined whether iodine status postintervention mediated the effect on child development. We found no difference between infants in the intervention and control groups on total ASQ-2 scores (P=0.633), but a difference on the ASQ:SE scores in favor of the intervention group (20.9 and 20.5 in the intervention group and 26.1 and 26.8 in the control group for 3 and 6 mo, respectively; P=0.020). There was no difference in change of the scores between the groups over time (P=0.946). The effect of group on the total ASQ:SE scores was not mediated via maternal urinary iodine concentration postintervention (β = -1.03, SE=0.68, P=0.126). Our results provide no evidence for an effect of increased cod intake during pregnancy on general child development in the first year of life, but there was a positive effect on socio-emotional problems. More studies are needed to define the role of fish consumption during pregnancy and the effects on child neurodevelopment.This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02610959.

Maternal seafood intake during pregnancy, prenatal mercury exposure and child body mass index trajectories up to 8 years.

BackgroundMaternal seafood intake during pregnancy and prenatal mercury exposure may influence children’s growth trajectories.MethodsThis study, based on the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study (MoBa), includes 51 952 mother-child pairs recruited in pregnancy during 2002–08 and a subsample (n = 2277) with maternal mercury concentrations in whole blood. Individual growth trajectories were computed by modelling based on child’s reported weight and length/height from 1 month to 8 years. We used linear mixed-effects regression analysis and also conducted discordant-sibling analysis.ResultsMaternal lean fish was the main contributor to total seafood intake in pregnancy and was positively but weakly associated with child body mass index (BMI) growth trajectory. Higher prenatal mercury exposure (top decile) was associated with a reduction in child’s weight growth trajectory, with the estimates ranging from -130 g [95% Confidence Intervals (CI) = -247, -12 g] at 18 months to -608 g (95% CI = -1.102, -113 g) at 8 years. Maternal fatty fish consumption was positively associated with child weight and BMI growth trajectory, but only in the higher mercury-exposed children (P-interaction = 0.045). Other seafood consumption during pregnancy was negatively associated with child weight growth compared with no intake, and this association was stronger for higher mercury-exposed children (P-interaction = 0.004). No association was observed between discordant maternal seafood intake and child growth in the sibling analysis.ConclusionsWithin a population with moderate seafood consumption and low mercury exposure, we found that maternal seafood consumption in pregnancy was associated with child growth trajectories, and the direction of the association varied by seafood type and level of prenatal mercury exposure. Prenatal mercury exposure was negatively associated with child growth. Our findings on maternal seafood intake are likely non-causal.

Impact of Methylmercury and Other Heavy Metals Exposure on Neurocognitive Function in Children Aged 7 Years: Study Protocol of the Follow-up.

BackgroundThe extent to which prenatal low-level mercury (Hg) exposure through maternal fish intake and heavy metals exposure affect children’s neurodevelopment is controversial and may appear in the long term. In 2007, a prospective cohort, the Northern Adriatic Cohort II (NAC-II), was established to investigate the association between prenatal Hg exposure from maternal fish consumption and child neurodevelopment. The study enrolled 900 pregnant women, and 632 and 470 children underwent neurodevelopmental evaluation at 18 and 40 months of age, respectively. The NAC-II cohort is a part of the Mediterranean cohort in the “Public health impact of long-term, low-level, mixed element exposure in susceptible population strata” project.MethodsThis protocol describes the follow-up assessment of the effects of prenatal low level Hg and other heavy metals exposure on the developing nervous system of the children born within the NAC-II who reached the age of 7 years. Child diet components are estimated through a Diet Diary. Child hair and urine are collected for determination of Hg level. In addition, levels of other potentially neurotoxic metals, namely Manganese, Cadmium, Lead, Arsenic, and Selenium, are also measured in the same matrices.DiscussionThis protocol extends to the first years of schooling age the evaluation of the neurotoxicant effect of Mercury and of the other heavy metals on children’s neurodevelopment, adjusting for the potential confounders, such as the lifestyles and social economic status of children’s families. Longitudinal analysis of neurodevelopment, assessed in different ages (18 months, 40 months, and 7 years), are performed.