Maternal Energy Restriction Research Articles

Maternal undernutrition in the first eighty days of gestation negatively programs ovarian development in dairy calves.

We hypothesized that in dairy cattle maternal energy restriction applied during two gestational windows (up to day 80 or 120 of gestation) impairs ovarian and cardiovascular development in juvenile female offspring. We also investigated the role of maternal leptin and testosterone in developmental programming in calves. Holstein-Friesian heifers were randomly assigned to one of three experimental groups; starting 10days before artificial insemination, they were individually fed at: (i) 0.6 of their maintenance energy requirements (M) up to day 80 (Nutrient Restricted, NR80) or (ii) day 120 of gestation (NR120); (iii) 1.8M until day 120 of pregnancy (Control, CTR). Plasma leptin concentrations increased transiently in nutritionally restricted heifers pregnant with a single female calf, but maternal testosterone concentrations were not influenced by diet. Calves had similar body growth, but daughters of NR80 and NR120 had impaired ovarian development, as assessed by reduced gonadal weight, fewer surface antral & primary follicles and recovered COCs, as well as lower circulating AMH concentrations. Cardiovascular morphology and function in the offspring were not influenced by maternal diet, as determined by peripheral arterial blood pressure, echocardiography, post-mortem heart weight and aortic circumference. Regardless of its duration (until day 80 or 120 of gestation), nutritional restriction resulted in a similar alteration of ovarian development in juvenile progeny, but cardiovascular development was unaltered. Evidence suggests that the window of development that encompasses the peri-ovulatory period to the first 2.6months of gestation is critical in ovarian programming and that maternal leptin may be involved.

Refeeding ewes ad libitum after a moderate energy restriction during mid gestation did not affect the onset of breeding and ovulating rate of female offspring

Sub-nutrition during pregnancy might affect the offspring´s reproductive performance through effects on the development and function of gonads. This study evaluated a maternal energy restriction in ewes from day 48–106 of gestation, on pre- and post-weaning female lambs` performance, onset of female lambs’ breeding and ovulation rate during their first breeding season. Adult Polwarth ewes sired by Finnish rams bearing single or twin lambs were assigned to two dietary treatments from day 48 to day 106 of gestation: restricted (R; n = 60) at 60 % of their metabolizable energy (ME) requirements, or non-restricted (NR; n = 54) at 100 % of their ME requirements. After the restriction period, ewes grazed all together ad libitum until weaning. The ewe lambs were evaluated from birth to weaning, as well as during their first breeding season. Although NR ewes weighed 17.7 % more than R ewes (P < 0.05) at the end of the restriction period, the nutritional treatment of the dams had no effect on the weight of the ewe lambs at birth, weaning or final weight (P > 0.05). Fat depth, rib eye area, the percentage of ewe-lambs cycling and their ovulation rate during the first breeding season was not affected by the ewe´s dietary treatment. Ewes restricted at 60 % of their ME requirements in mid-gestation seemed to have the capacity to compensate any detrimental effects on growth and development as well as the reproductive potential of female lambs if adequate refeeding conditions are provided in late gestation, throughout lactation and post-weaning.

Comparative Analysis of Gene Expression Profiles in the Adipose Tissue of Obese Adult Mice With Rapid Infantile Growth After Undernourishment In Utero.

Rapid infantile growth (RG) markedly increases the risk of obesity and metabolic disorders in adulthood, particularly among neonates born small. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms by which RG following undernourishment in utero (UN) contributes to the deterioration of adult fat deposition, we developed a UN mouse model using maternal energy restriction, followed by RG achieved by adjustments to 4 pups per litter soon after birth. A high-fat diet (HFD) was fed to weaned pups treated or not (Veh) with tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TU). UN-RG pups showed the deterioration of diet-induced obesity and fat deposition, which was ameliorated by TU. We performed a microarray analysis of epididymal adipose tissue and two gene enrichment analyses (NN-Veh vs UN-RD-Veh and UN-RG-Veh vs UN-RG-TU). The results obtained identified 4 common gene ontologies (GO) terms of inflammatory pathways. In addition to the inflammatory characteristics of 4 GO terms, the results of heatmap and principal component analyses of the representative genes from 4 GO terms, genes of interest (GOI; Saa3, Ubd, S100a8, Hpx, Casp1, Agt, Ptgs2) selected from the 4 GO terms, and immunohistochemistry of macrophages collectively suggested the critical involvement of inflammation in the regulation of fat deposition in the responses to UN and TU. Therefore, the present results support the ‘Developmental Origins of Metaflammation’, the last word of which was recently proposed by the concept of metabolic disorders induced by low-grade systemic inflammation.

PSXII-26 Maternal energy restriction in early gestation affects MYOG network topology of bovine skeletal muscle

Abstract Maternal nutrition has long-term consequences in muscle development through transcriptomic changes. Although gene expression differences were reported between dietary treatments, the relationship between genes and its role in the regulation of specific pathways is still limited. Herein, we performed a gene co-expression network (GCN) analysis to determine the relationship between maternal nutrition, gene expression, and the pathways that control skeletal muscle development. Gene expression was measured with RNA-Seq in 14 fetuses collected on day 50 of gestation from dams fed a diet initiated at breeding to either achieve 60% (RES, n = 7) or 100% (CON, n = 7) of NRC energy requirements. After data quality control, mapping, and normalization, we constructed a GCN for 14,205 genes by using the PCIT approach. The networks were built individually for CON and RES groups resulting in approximately 3 and 4 million significantly correlated pairs (P &amp;lt; 0.05), respectively. To reduce the network complexity, we selected those correlated genes (r &amp;gt; |0.95|) that were previously reported as differentially expressed for these animals. Although we identified a greater number of hub genes in the CON group (35 vs. 22), the connectivity degree was significantly higher in RES. The over-representation analysis pointed out different pathways between the exclusively connected genes from each group. Signaling pathways such as FoxO and AMPK underlay the CON group (n = 1,393 genes), whereas fatty acid metabolism, mTOR, and insulin were over-represented in the RES group (n = 2,453 genes). MYOG, a transcription factor required for myogenesis, was identified among the hub genes in both groups; however, it was 70.5% more connected and 33% more expressed in the RES group (P &amp;lt; 0.001). In summary, energy restriction likely modulates gene expression, specific functions, and consequently, muscle metabolism by affecting gene-specific sub-networks. USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.

Refeeding ewe’s ad libitum after energy restriction during mid-pregnancy does not affect lamb feed conversion ratio, animal performance and meat quality

The aim of the study was to evaluate maternal energy restriction in ewes from day 48 to 106 of gestation on pre- and post-weaning lambs`’ performance, carcass and meat quality when their dams were fed ad libitum after the restriction period. Ewes bearing single or twin lambs were assigned to two dietary treatments from day 48 to day 106 of gestation: restricted (R; n = 60) at 60% of their metabolizable energy (ME) requirements, or non-restricted (NR; n = 54) at 100% of their ME requirements. After the restriction period ewes grazed all together ad libitum until weaning. Subsequently, male lambs were placed in a feedlot until slaughter. Ewes body weight was recorded during nutritional treatment application and at weaning. Litter size and lamb sex were recorded, and feed intake and body weight were measured from birth until slaughter. After slaughter, carcass weight and yield, subcutaneous tissue depth (GR site), carcass (CL) and leg length (LL), frenched rack (FR) and leg weights were determined. After 5 days of meat aging, color parameters and Warner-Bratzler shear force were determined on longissimus lumborum muscle. Non-restricted ewes weighed 7.5 kg more than R ewes (P < 0.05) at the end of the restriction period. Lamb birth weight (BW) was no affected (P > 0.05) by dams’ treatment although male and single lambs had a greater (P < 0.05) BW than females and twins, respectively. No significant differences (P > 0.05) were detected on the weaning weight between ewes’ feeding treatments or lamb sex. Estimated average milk intake by lambs was not affected (P > 0.05) by dams’ treatments and litter size. Lambs born to R or NR ewes did not differ (P > 0.05) in feed conversion ratio (FCR) of milk, while twins were more efficient (P < 0.05) than single-born. Male lambs from R and NR ewes did not differ (P > 0.05) in weaning and final weight, feed intake and FCR during the fattening phase. Slaughter and hot carcass weight, carcass yield (CYd), GR, CL and LL were not affected (P > 0.05) by treatment and litter size. Brightness of meat (L* value) was greater (P < 0.05) in lambs from R ewes than NR. Ewes restricted at 60% of their ME requirements in mid-gestation seems to have the capacity to compensate any detrimental effects on lamb growth and development if adequate refeeding conditions are provided in late gestation and throughout lactation.

Maternal energy restriction by low starch or fat affects carcase trait, meat quality and muscle antioxidative properties in Arbor Acres broilers

In the experiment, the effects of maternal dietary energy restriction on carcase, meat quality and antioxidant capacity in broilers were evaluated. A total of 400 25-weeks-old Arbour Acres broiler breeder female birds were randomly assigned to four groups (T1, T2, T3 and T4) with different dietary metabolisable energy levels (11.70, 9.36, 8.19 and 5.85 MJ kg−1). Female birds were restrictively fed same intake. Broilers from different maternal dietary energy were fed diets similar in nutrients contents during deferent growth period. Low maternal energy decreased egg weight and offspring hatch weight. T2 group got a higher thigh muscle percentage of 28-d-old offspring and a higher body weight of 49-d-old offspring than T1 group. Abdominal fat percentage of 49-d-old offspring in T3 group was increased. Low maternal energy increased intramuscular fat (IMF) contents in 28-d-old offspring breast and 49-d-old offspring thigh. 49-d-old offspring in T2 and T3 groups got lower drip loss and higher meat colour value. T2 and T3 groups had higher total superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activities in offspring muscles and lower malondialdehyde level. A higher glutathione peroxidase mRNA expression in breast muscle was found in T2 group. Maternal dietary energy restriction altered egg weight and offspring hatch weight. Appropriate reduction of maternal dietary energy made chickens fattier and increased the antioxidant capacity of offspring muscles.HighlightsIt is well known that embryo development and postnatal growth are influenced by maternal nutritional supply. This paper shows that 9.36 MJ ME/kg diet for hens during laying period is better for broiler to achieve greater slaughter weight and body antioxidant capacity.This paper indicated that maternal dietary energy restriction affected fat accumulation and antioxidant capacity of offspring. Maternal nutritional management may become a way to regulate the quality of chickens through.

Impact of energy restriction during late gestation on the muscle and blood transcriptome of beef calves after preconditioning

BackgroundMaternal nutrition has been highlighted as one of the main factors affecting intra-uterine environment. The increase in nutritional requirements by beef cows during late gestation can cause nutritional deficiency in the fetus and impact the fetal regulation of genes associated with myogenesis and immune response.MethodsForty days before the expected calving date, cows were assigned to one of two diets: 100% (control) or 70% (restricted group) of the daily energy requirement. Muscle samples were collected from 12 heifers and 12 steers, and blood samples were collected from 12 steers. The objective of this work was to identify and to assess the biological relevance of differentially expressed genes (DEG) in the skeletal muscle and blood of beef calves born from cows that experienced [or not] a 30% energy restriction during the last 40 days of gestation.ResultsA total of 160, 164, and 346 DEG (q-value< 0.05) were identified in the skeletal muscle for the effects of diet, sex, and diet-by-sex interaction, respectively. For blood, 452, 1392, and 155 DEG were identified for the effects of diet, time, and diet-by-time interaction, respectively. For skeletal muscle, results based on diet identified genes involved in muscle metabolism. In muscle, from the 10 most DEG down-regulated in the energy-restricted group (REST), we identified 5 genes associated with muscle metabolism and development: SLCO3A1, ATP6V0D1, SLC2A1, GPC4, and RASD2. In blood, among the 10 most DEG, we found genes related to response to stress up-regulated in the REST after weaning, such as SOD3 and INO80D, and to immune response down-regulated in the REST after vaccination, such as OASL, KLRF1, and LOC104968634.ConclusionIn conclusion, maternal energy restriction during late gestation may limit the expression of genes in the muscle and increase expression in the blood of calves. In addition, enrichment analysis showed that a short-term maternal energy restriction during pregnancy affects the expression of genes related to energy metabolism and muscle contraction, and immunity and stress response in the blood. Therefore, alterations in the intra-uterine environment can modify prenatal development with lasting consequences to adult life.

Moderate Maternal Energy Restriction During Gestation in Pigs Attenuates Fetal Skeletal Muscle Development Through Changing Myogenic Gene Expression and Myofiber Characteristics.

Maternal undernutrition during gestation influences the development of the fetus, thereby increasing the risk of metabolic syndrome in adulthood. Skeletal muscle, one of the key insulin-responsive organs, is susceptible to maternal nutritional programming. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of moderate maternal energy restriction during gestation in pigs on basic events of fetal skeletal myogenesis. Primiparous, purebred Meishan sows were fed a control (normal energy intake) or a low-energy (LE) diet from mating to day 90 of gestation. Biochemical characteristics, myogenic gene expression, and myofiber characteristics were assessed in longissimus dorsi (LD) muscle of fetuses on days 55 and 90 of gestation. Fetal weights, myofiber density, and fetal umbilical vein serum triiodothyronine (T3) concentration decreased in LE group on both days 55 and 90 of gestation. The expression and activity of creatine kinase, the messenger RNA (mRNA) expression of myosin heavy chain ( MYH/ MyHC) genes ( MYH2 and MYH4), concentration of muscular DNA and protein, and protein expression of fast-MyHC isoforms were reduced in LD muscle of LE fetuses on day 55 or 90 of gestation. Meanwhile, myogenic gene expression was reduced in LE fetuses on day 55 or 90 of gestation, indicating the downregulation of myogenesis. Additionally, the exposure to LE diet led to increased isocitrate dehydrogenase activity and slow MyHC (MYH7) mRNA expression on day 90 of gestation, suggesting the elevation of oxidative muscle metabolism. These findings suggest that moderate energy restriction during gestation attenuates fetal skeletal muscle development in pigs, resulting in the delay of skeletal muscle differentiation and maturity.

Prenatal programming in an obese swine model: sex-related effects of maternal energy restriction on morphology, metabolism and hypothalamic gene expression

Maternal energy restriction during pregnancy predisposes to metabolic alterations in the offspring. The present study was designed to evaluate phenotypic and metabolic consequences following maternal undernutrition in an obese pig model and to define the potential role of hypothalamic gene expression in programming effects. Iberian sows were fed a control or a 50 % restricted diet for the last two-thirds of gestation. Newborns were assessed for body and organ weights, hormonal and metabolic status, and hypothalamic expression of genes implicated in energy homeostasis, glucocorticoid function and methylation. Weight and adiposity were measured in adult littermates. Newborns of the restricted sows were lighter (P <0·01), but brain growth was spared. The plasma concentration of TAG was lower in the restricted newborns than in the control newborns of both the sexes (P <0·01), while the concentration of cortisol was higher in females born to the restricted sows (P <0·04), reflecting a situation of metabolic stress by nutrient insufficiency. A lower hypothalamic expression of anorexigenic peptides (LEPR and POMC, P <0·01 and P <0·04, respectively) was observed in females born to the restricted sows, but no effect was observed in the males. The expression of HSD11B1 gene was down-regulated in the restricted animals (P <0·05), suggesting an adaptive mechanism for reducing the harmful effects of elevated concentrations of cortisol. At 4 and 7 months of age, the restricted females were heavier and fatter than the controls (P< 0·01). Maternal feed restriction induces asymmetrical growth retardation and metabolic alterations in the offspring. Differences in gene expression at birth and higher growth and adiposity in adulthood suggest a female-specific programming effect for a positive energy balance, possibly due to overexposure to endogenous stress-induced glucocorticoids.

The influence of maternal energy restriction during mid-gestation on beef offspring growth performance and carcass characteristics

The influence of maternal energy restriction during mid-gestation on beef offspring growth performance and carcass characteristics

Effects of maternal protein or energy restriction during late gestation on antioxidant status of plasma and immune tissues in postnatal goats1

Maternal malnutrition can have temporary or long-lasting effects on development and physiological function of offspring. Our objective was to investigate whether maternal protein or energy restriction in late gestation affects the antioxidant status of plasma, immune organs (thymus and spleen), and natural barrier organs (jejunum) in neonatal goats and whether the effects could be reversed after nutritional recovery. Forty-five pregnant goats (Liuyang Blacks) of similar age (2.0 ± 0.3 yr) and BW (22.2 ± 1.5 kg at d 90 of gestation) were assigned to 3 dietary treatments during late gestation: control (ME = 9.34 MJ/kg and CP = 12.5%, DM basis), 40% protein restricted (PR), and 40% energy restricted (ER) until parturition, after which offspring received the normal diet for nutritional recovery. Plasma and tissues of kids were sampled to determine antioxidant enzymes [superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), and catalase (CAT)] and gene expression of antioxidant enzymes (Cu/Zn-SOD [SOD1], CAT, and peroxiredoxin 2 [PRDX2]). Maternal protein or energy restriction decreased (P < 0.05) SOD activities in plasma, liver, thymus, and spleen and SOD1 expression in thymus, and maternal energy restriction also decreased (P < 0.05) plasma GSH-Px activity and expressions of SOD1 and CAT in liver at birth. After nutritional recovery of 6 wk, SOD activities in thymus (both in PR and ER) and spleen (only in PR) were greater (P < 0.05), but CAT activity of thymus (both in PR and ER) and CAT expression (only in ER) were less (P < 0.01) than those in control. After nutritional recovery of 22 wk, SOD1 and PRDX2 expression in thymus (both in PR and ER) and SOD1 expression in liver (only in ER) were greater (P < 0.05) whereas CAT expression in thymus (both in PR and ER) was less (P < 0.001) than in control. The current results indicate that maternal protein or energy restriction can decrease the antioxidant capacity of the neonatal kids and result in an imbalance of SOD and hydrogen peroxide-inactivating systems in thymus, even after 6 or 22 wk of nutritional recovery.

Metabolic programming of sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) expression by moderate energy restriction during gestation in rats may be related to obesity susceptibility in later life

In rats, 20% gestational energy restriction programmes offspring for higher food intake, which in adulthood results in higher body weight in males but not in females. Here, we aimed to assess whether the effects of moderate energy restriction during gestation and the sex-related outcomes on adult body weight may be related to the metabolic programming of sirtuin expression in different tissues. For this purpose, 25-d-old offspring of control and 20% energy-restricted (ER) rats (from days 1-12 of pregnancy) were studied. Body weight and the weight of white adipose tissue (WAT) depots and liver were recorded and mRNA expression of sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) and selected genes in the WAT, liver, muscle and hypothalamus were analysed. No differences were found in body weight or the weight of WAT and liver between the control and ER animals. A similar pattern of SIRT1 mRNA expression was found in the WAT, liver and skeletal muscle of ER animals, but in a sex-dependent manner: ER males showed lower SIRT1 mRNA levels than the controls, while no differences were found in females. A sex-different pattern was also observed in the hypothalamus. ER males, but not females, also showed lower mRNA levels of adipose TAG lipase (ATGL) and uncoupling protein 2 in WAT and of sterol response element binding protein 1c and stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 in the liver. Both sexes of ER animals showed lower mRNA levels of 5' adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase and ATGL in the liver. In conclusion, moderate maternal energy restriction during gestation programmes a particular, sex-dependent gene expression profile of SIRT1 in different peripheral tissues, which may be related to obesity predisposition in adulthood; therefore SIRT1 expression emerges as a potential early biomarker of obesity susceptibility.

Gene Expression Profiles in Fetal and Neonatal Rat Offspring of Energy-Restricted Dams

Background/Aims: Nutrition during fetal and early postnatal development can have permanent effects on physiology resulting in an increased risk for disease in later life. The aim of this study was to explore changes in gene expression related to maternal energy restriction during pregnancy in rat fetuses and in neonatal rat offspring. Methods: From day 4 of gestation until parturition, energy-restricted dams received either 75 or 50% of ad libitum food intake. Microarray analyses were performed on whole 13- and 17-day fetuses and 1-day-old pups. Protein and fat contents of the dams’ milk were analyzed in the different feeding groups. Results: A surprisingly small number of genes were differentially expressed between the groups, probably due to the strict control of fetal development. Interestingly, the expressions of many pancreatic digestion enzymes were reduced in the 1-day-old pups of the energy-restricted dams. A statistically significant difference in milk protein content was observed on day 1 post-partum between the gestationally food-restricted groups. Conclusions: The expressions of several genes that may have an important role in the normal development of organs were affected by undernutrition during fetal development. In addition, undernutrition may have affected the function of the exocrine pancreas.

Insulin sensitivity is normalized in the third generation (F3) offspring of developmentally programmed insulin resistant (F2) rats fed an energy-restricted diet

Background/AimsThe offspring and grandoffspring of female rats fed low protein diets during pregnancy and lactation, but fed nutritionally adequate diets thereafter, have been shown to exhibit altered insulin sensitivity in adulthood. The current study investigates the insulin sensitivity of the offspring and grandoffspring of female rats fed low protein diets during pregnancy, and then maintained on energy-restricted diets post weaning over three generations.MethodsFemale Sprague Dawley rats (F0) were mated with control males and protein malnourished during pregnancy/lactation. F1 offspring were then weaned to adequate but energy-restricted diets into adulthood. F1 dams were fed energy-restricted diets throughout pregnancy/lactation. F2 offspring were also fed energy-restricted diets post weaning. F2 pregnant dams were maintained as described above. Their F3 offspring were split into two groups; one was maintained on the energy-restricted diet, the other was maintained on an adequate diet consumed ad libitum post weaning.ResultsF2 animals fed energy-restricted diets were insulin resistant (p < 0.05), while the insulin sensitivity of their F3 offspring equaled and surpassed that of controls on both the energy-restricted and adequate ad libitum postweaning diets (p < 0.05).ConclusionMaternal energy-restriction did not consistently program reduced insulin sensitivity in offspring over three consecutive generations. The reasons for this remain unclear. It is possible that the intergenerational transmission of developmentally programmed insulin resistance is determined in part by the relative insulin sensitivity of the mother during pregnancy/lactation.

Obesity as a consequence of undernutrition

The role of early undernutrition as a risk factor for adult obesity is supported by data from epidemiologic, clinical, and animal studies. In experimental animals, maternal energy restriction results in pups of reduced body size but with increased fat depots and hyperphagia. Similarly, reduced lean mass with relative increase in fat mass in the newborn have been described in gestational energy restriction in human populations. When coupled with the appropriate environmental conditions (widely available energy-dense foods, low energy expenditure) those factors predispose a person to excess weight gain and body fat accumulation in adult life. This combination of early biologic factors with environmental factors is best exemplified in the situation of populations from developing countries undergoing economic and nutritional transition, where high prevalence of low birth weight now is combined with an urban, sedentary lifestyle and increased access to low-cost, energy-dense foods. Thus reducing the prevalence of intrauterine growth retardation and early undernutrition should be an important component of our effort to control the worldwide obesity epidemic.

Effect of Gestation Diet Intake on Plasma Lipids and Progeny Birth and Weaning Weights of Genetically Lean, Obese and Contemporary Swine

Genetically obese (O), and lean (L) and contemporary (C) primiparous swine were assigned from day 30 to 40 of pregnancy to parturition to one of two dietary treatments: 1) 1.8 kg daily (6000 kcal DE) digestible energy, and 2) 0.6 kg daily (2000 kcal DE) of a standard corn-soybean meal-based diet. O gilts weighed less and were fatter at week 16 than L or C gilts. L and C gilts fed the low diet intake maintained constant body weight throughout pregnancy while O gilts gained approximately 10 kg. All gilts fed adequate energy gained weight. Plasma free fatty acids were higher and triglycerides were lower in pregnant gilts fed restricted energy. Plasma cholesterol and blood glucose appeared to be unaffected by genetic background, suggesting that genetic propensity to obesity is not necessarily associated with hypercholesterolemia or hyper-glycemia. Pig birth weight was reduced by maternal feed restriction only in O and C pigs; survival was higher in progeny of O dams than in those of L and C dams. Maternal energy restriction had no effect on survival in L, C, or O pigs. Preweaning growth of C but not of L or O progeny was adversely affected by maternal feed restriction. The data illustrate the significance of genetic × gestation energy interactions in dam and progeny traits and suggest that a consideration of genetic background is essential in evaluating response criteria related to feed restriction during pregnancy.