Yield Strength Of Material Research Articles

Theoretical model for predicting the yield strength of metal materials under electrically-assisted deformation

In this paper, based on the Force-Heat equivalence energy density principle, considering the thermal and athermal effects caused by current, the theoretical model for the current density dependent yield strength of metallic materials is developed. The novelty of this work lies in the fact that no adjustable fitting parameters were introduced during the modeling process, and both the Joule heating effect and the energy changes brought about by free electrons were considered in the contribution to the yield behavior of metallic materials, on which basis a critical energy density related to yield under the action of electric current was proposed. This model reveals the quantitative relationships between elastic modulus, steady-state temperature, electrical resistivity, thermal conductivity, current density, and yield strength under the action of current. The theoretical prediction results have achieved good consistency with experimental results. Furthermore, based on the principles of energy conservation and the assumption of steady-state, a theoretical expression was derived to predict the steady-state temperature caused by Joule heating. In addition, the results of the model analysis indicate that increasing the electrical resistivity of the material or decreasing its thermal conductivity can both facilitate plastic deformation and processing in electrically-assisted forming processes, especially at high current densities. This work provides an effective method for quantitatively evaluating the yield strength of metallic materials under the action of electric current, which can offer theoretical basis and optimization guidance for the extensive application and further development of electrically-assisted processes.

Influence of AlCoCrFeNiCuSn HEA reinforcement particles on the plastic flow behaviour of the friction stir processed composite material under constrained confined deformation conditions

In the present investigation, an AlCoCrFeNiCuSn high entropy alloy (HEA) reinforced (with 2.5, 5, 7.5 weight percentage (wt.%)) AA7050-based metal matrix composite has been developed by utilising the friction-stir processing (FSP) technique. Further, the representative volume element (RVE) based finite element analysis (FEA) model and macro-mechanical static indentation FEA model have been developed to analyze the plastic deformation of developed composite material under constrained confined deformation conditions at a load range of 4.90 to 49.03 kN. The microstructural investigation confirms the fair distribution of AlCoCrFeNiCuSn HEA particles in the AA7050 matrix. The micro-mechanical RVE-based FEA model and macro-mechanical static indentation FEA model were successfully validated with experimental and analytical models (ECM and FPM) with less than 5% percentage difference. The yield strength of matrix material was increased with 6.51%, 10.47%, and 15.19% by increasing the AlCoCrFeNiCuSn HEA reinforcement particle with 2.5wt.%, 5wt.%, and 7.5wt.% respectively. Further, the tensile strength of matrix material was increased with 1.88%, 3.93%, and 10.49% by increasing the AlCoCrFeNiCuSn HEA reinforcement particle with 2.5wt.%, 5wt.%, and 7.5wt.% respectively. Additionally, Composition 1 (AA7050/2.5wt.% AlCoCrFeNiCuSn HEA), composition 2 (AA7050/5wt.% AlCoCrFeNiCuSn HEA) and composition 3 (AA7050/7.5wt.% AlCoCrFeNiCuSn HEA) show 7.39%, 11.91% and 22.16% more Meyer’s hardness than matrix material.

Strength gradient in impact-induced metallic bonding

Solid-state bonding can form when metallic microparticles impact metallic substrates at supersonic velocities. While the conditions necessary for impact-induced metallic bonding are relatively well understood, the properties emerging at the bonded interfaces remain elusive. Here, we use in situ microparticle impact experiments followed by site-specific micromechanical measurements to study the interfacial strength across bonded interfaces. We reveal a gradient of bond strength starting with a weak bonding near the impact center, followed by a rapid twofold rise to a peak strength significantly higher than the yield strength of the bulk material, and eventually, a plateau covering a large portion of the interface towards the periphery. We show that the form of the native oxide at the bonded interface—whether layers, particles, or debris—dictates the level of bond strength. We formulate a predictive framework for impact-induced bond strength based on the evolution of the contact pressure and surface exposure.

Examination of Microstructure, Mechanical Properties, and Fatigue Strength in a Wire Arc Additively Manufactured Material Comprising Dissimilar Materials: AISI 316L Stainless Steel and Carbon Steel

This study provides a comprehensive investigation into the microstructure, hardness, tensile strength, and bending fatigue behavior of a Wire Arc Additively Manufactured (WAAM) component composed of dissimilar materials—Carbon Steel (CS) and 316L stainless steel. Microscopic analysis reveals distinct microstructural characteristics, such as equiaxed ferrite grains in WAAM CS and a coarse columnar structure with delta-ferrite phases in WAAM 316L. A macroscopic phase map indicates a predominantly Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) structure near the interphase, suggesting element migration between CS and 316L due to high heat input. Higher magnification scans highlight martensitic structures on both sides of the interphase, with the CS side exhibiting larger grain sizes. Hardness assessment along the built direction shows a peak hardness of 407 HV near the interphase on the 316L side, contrasting with the CS side's average interphase hardness of 316 HV due to larger grain sizes. The yield strength of both WAAM CS and WAAM dissimilar material was consistently measured at 392 MPa. In comparison, WAAM 316L exhibited a slightly lower yield strength of 359 MPa. Notably, WAAM 316L demonstrated the highest tensile strength among the materials, reaching 656 MPa. Meanwhile, WAAM CS displayed a robust tensile strength of 503 MPa, and the WAAM dissimilar material exhibited a yield strength of 520 MPa. In terms of elongation, WAAM CS and WAAM 316L showcased values of 44.9% and 49.6%, respectively. On the other hand, WAAM dissimilar material exhibited a somewhat lower elongation of 20.4%, suggesting a different mechanical behavior in terms of ductility. Bending fatigue tests on WAAM 316L, WAAM CS, and the dissimilar material reveal a fatigue limit of approximately 225 MPa for WAAM 316L, 210 MPa for WAAM CS, and approximately 210 MPa for the dissimilar material. In the low-cycle and medium-cycle regimes, the dissimilar material exhibits slightly superior fatigue strength, potentially due to its marginally higher static strength. Notably, consistent fractures on the CS side during fatigue tests underscore a recurring behavior in the dissimilar material.

Improved approaches for small punch test to estimate the yield and ultimate tensile strength of metallic materials

The small punch test (SPT) has been used extensively in nuclear industries to estimate mechanical properties changes of metals due to irradiation. This paper aims to propose more accurate approaches for SPT to estimate the yield and ultimate tensile strength of metals. The relationship between the SPT force and the yield and ultimate tensile strength of materials was studied by using finite element simulation data, and then three approaches were developed to determine tensile properties of materials by means of SPT. Force method and Slop method were developed to derive the ultimate tensile strength of metals from SPT curves, and Area method was proposed to determine the yield and ultimate tensile strength of metals. The accuracy of these approaches were verified by two candidate structural material for fusion reactors (CLF-1 steel and 9Cr-ODS steel) and other 10 structural materials. Area method gives more accurate evaluation on the yield strength of metals than the correlation method given in European standard on SPT. In addition, the developed approaches have advantages in estimating the tensile properties of low ductility metals.

Experimental study on the heat input behavior of wire-arc additively manufactured 316L stainless steel parts for repairing applications

Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) as an emerging manufacturing technique for fabricating large size metallic components with a higher deposition rate and lower material wastage. In this research, a thin walled-part was fabricated from stainless steel 316L with various heat input (HI) (low heat deposited wall (LHDW) and high heat deposited wall (HHDW) using the cold metal transfer (CMT)-based WAAM process. The microstructure characteristics, metallurgical characterization, and mechanical properties of the WAAM manufactured thin-walled component were examined. The deposited wall measuring 120 mm in length and 50 mm in height was fabricated by WAAM using ER316L wire and CMT. Microstructure of the deposit parts consists of the equiaxed, coarse, and columnar grains with epitaxial growth of dendrites were formed. The decrease in HI leads to the improvement of material hardness, yield and ultimate tensile strength (UTS) as well as the percentage elongation after fracture of the material decreases. EBSD analysis demonstrates the average grain size of 0.98 µm in LHDW and 2.43 in HHDW respectively. XRD results shows that main crystal structure found in WAAM thin-walled sample was γ-austenite phases. The microhardness distribution of the fabricated component exhibited the stability characteristics with the average value ranging between 213–237 HV. The tensile studies demonstrate the UTS of the LHDW and HHDW along the horizontal direction are 477 MPa greater than the vertical direction of 468 MPa and observed the anisotropy properties. The fractured surface was characterized by the emergence of obvious dimples revealing the ductile fracture. The lower HI and finer solidification structure of component fabricated by LHDW has greater tensile and hardness properties than that of HHDW. This study presents the initial assessment results for repairing stainless steel components subjected to mechanical damage.

Research on Safety of Aero-Engine Oil Pipe Under Heating Conditions Based on Fluid-Solid Thermal Coupling.

This paper examines the safety of aero-engine pipelines under different heating conditions. Based on the fire test standard documents, a model of an aero-engine oil pipe was constructed, and its safety under heating conditions that meet the standard was analyzed using fluid-solid thermal coupling. The pipe material was stainless steel 1Cr18Ni9Ti, and the oil inside the pipeline was China RP-3 kerosene. To simulate the different working conditions or pump failure scenarios, various kerosene inlet flow rates were used for the calculations. The results indicate that the pipe wall exhibits an uneven temperature distribution under standard heating conditions. As the kerosene flow rate decreases, the pipe wall temperature rises, and heat transfer deterioration occurs. The increase in the pipe wall temperature reduces the material's strength, while the uneven temperature distribution generates thermal stress, further increasing the safety risk. When the kerosene flow rate is reduced to a certain level, the equivalent stress in the pipe wall exceeds the material's yield strength, leading to a high risk of rupture.

Seismic behavior of resilient concrete column-base connection with SMA bolts and RSPs

This paper presented a novel resilient concrete column-base connection with shaped memory alloy (SMA) bolts and rectangular slotted plates (RSPs) to achieve the demountable and recoverable capabilities in precast concrete columns. Quasi-static tests were conducted on one monolithic and three resilient concrete connections to investigate the effects of RSP number and yield strength on seismic behavior. Results showed that the resilient connection with both flange and web RSPs had superior lateral capacity, ultimate drift ratio, and energy dissipation compared to the monolithic connection. The resilient connection also exhibited minimal concrete damage and smaller residual deformation. However, low-yield-strength flange RSPs significantly reduced lateral capacity, initial stiffness, and energy dissipation, which should be considered in engineering design. Additionally, adjustment coefficients for rocking interface rotations were determined from digital image correlation (DIC) data using a fitting method. A formula was proposed to predict the flexural capacity of resilient specimens, assuming a plane section in the compression zone. The predictions closely matched the test data, with differences within 10 %, demonstrating the formula's effectiveness. The length, diameter, and material yield strength of the anti-shear steel bar (ASB) had a significant impact on the shear capacity of the interface.

A novel prediction method for rolling contact fatigue damage of the pearlite rail materials based on shakedown limits and rough set theory with cloud model

Evaluation and prediction of wheel-rail rolling contact fatigue (RCF) damage can provide important theoretical guarantees for the service safety of wheels and rails and help make maintenance easier to plan. This study aims to develop a novel method for evaluating and predicting RCF damage of the pearlite rail materials with various initial shear yield strengths (ke). Based on the rough set mathematical theory incorporated within the cloud model of the comprehensive evaluation index (P0/ke*μt), a novel evaluation and prediction method for RCF damage states of various pearlite rail materials was constructed using the shakedown limits for pearlite rail materials with various initial shear yield strengths. To develop this novel prediction method, different evaluation indices for RCF damage states were designed. A comprehensive certainty approach was introduced to quantitatively analyze the actual measured values of distinct evaluation indices that corresponds to different RCF damage states, wherein the maximum value rule was applied. Moreover, the prediction results were confirmed after further verifying using the actual measured value of the P0/ke*μt. The results indicated that the predicted results were consistent with the test outcomes. The key feature of this prediction method was that it involved both the intrinsic shear yield strength of evaluated pearlite rail materials and wheel-rail rolling contact variables. On the basis of the two-dimensional classical shakedown map, a three-dimensional shakedown limit diagram for rail materials with varying initial shear yield strengths was further constructed using this novel prediction method. The three-dimensional shakedown limit diagram featured an inclined curved surface. As the initial shear yield strength of the pearlite rail materials increased, the curved surface tilted downward, indicating that an increase in the initial ke value of the pearlite rail materials could result in a lower shakedown limit.

An incremental permeability detection method for yield strength of ferromagnetic materials based on permanent magnet excitation

ABSTRACT In this paper, in order to meet the engineering requirements of mechanical properties detection of materials with low power consumption, a novel incremental permeability detection system based on permanent magnet excitation is proposed to reduce system power consumption. Initially, a new incremental permeability sensor was designed to extract magnetic incremental permeability (MIP) signal. Through finite element simulation, experimental parameters were optimised, and a rational arrangement of double permanent magnets was devised to furnish an optimally strong AC bias field intensity. Subsequently, a practical detection platform was assembled to extract electromagnetic signal features. From the perspective of domain wall displacement, a characteristic value θ was proposed to predict the yield strength, with experimental results yielding a relative error of less than ±10%. These experiments have validated the capability of permanent magnet-type MIP to enable quantitative detection of the yield strength in ferromagnetic materials.

Application of Flores model considering variable recovery coefficient in dynamics analysis of ball bearings

PurposeThis paper aims to select an appropriate contact force model and apply it to the interaction model between the balls and the cage in the rolling bearings to describe the elastic–plastic collision phenomena between the two.Design/methodology/approachTaking the ball–disk collision mode as an example, several main contact force models were compared and analyzed through simulation and experiment. In addition, based on the consideration of yield strength of materials and initial collision velocity, a variable recovery coefficient model was proposed, and its validity and accuracy were verified by the ball–disk collision experiments. Then, respectively, the Flores model and the Hertz model were applied to the interaction between the balls and the cage, and the dynamics simulation results were compared.FindingsThe results indicate that the Flores model has good regression of recovery coefficient, indicating good applicability for both elastic and elastic–plastic contacts and can be applied to the contact collision situations of various materials. Under certain working conditions, there are significant differences in the dynamics results of rolling bearings simulated using the Flores model and Hertz model, respectively.Originality/valueThis paper applies the Flores model with variable recovery coefficients to the dynamics simulation analysis of ball bearings to solve the elastic–plastic collision problem between the rolling elements and the cage that cannot be reasonably handled by the Hertz model.Peer reviewThe peer review history for this article is available at: https://publons.com/publon/10.1108/ILT-04-2024-0138/

Sulfide stress corrosion cracking in L360QS pipelines: A comprehensive failure analysis and implications for natural gas transportation safety

This research investigates the severe weld failures in L360QS pipelines, which are integral to the infrastructure of high-pressure natural gas transportation systems. Even with strict compliance to engineering standards, two pivotal welds experienced sulfide stress corrosion cracking (SSCC) due to continuous exposure to hydrogen sulfide and stresses from construction activities. A comprehensive material analysis and stress simulation has been utilized, revealing a maximum stress concentration of 544.9 MPa that surpasses the yield strength of the pipeline material. This discovery prompts a reevaluation of current safety margins and underscores the urgent need for enhanced pipeline integrity management. Our findings, corroborated by stress distribution simulations, not only illuminate the complex interplay of material properties and environmental factors in SSCC but also provide a new perspective for the safe service of pipeline.

Design and dynamic analysis of a spanwise morphing wing for Mars exploration

The application of spanwise morphing wings makes it possible to transport and launch large-size Mars exploration UAVs. This article proposes a modular variable spanwise morphing wing for high-aspect-ratio aircrafts, and analyses the characteristics of the morphing wing by theoretical analysis, numerical simulation and experimental verification. The novel spanwise morphing wing is based on the Sarrus-inspired deployable structure, which can increase the wing's lift by changing the spanwise length. The pre-strain torsion springs are assembled to provide the initial driving moment of the morphing mechanism. A regular triangle cross section is selected by evaluating the bending and torsional stiffness, and deployable triangular prism mechanisms are identified. Through releasing the pre-strain torsion springs to achieve expansion and implant Sarrus linkages along the straight motion paths. A lockable structure is designed, and the main factors affecting the self-locking property are analysed. A rigid origami skin is proposed, which maintains the airfoil's continuous smoothness after spanwise morphing. The kinematics of the spanwise morphing wing unit is developed using the Lagrange equation, and the theoretical models of morphing wings with different numbers of units are obtained. The unit numbers influence fully expanded time, and the time decreases gradually along the wingtip's direction. Finally, a one-way fluid-structure interaction analysis is performed to investigate the spanwise morphing mechanism and origami skin response under aerodynamic loads. Results show that the skeleton mechanism's maximum stress is below the material's yield strength, and the origami skin's maximum out-of-plane deformation is less than 0.5% of the wing chord, which provides a necessary theoretical basis for applying the spanwise morphing wing.

Research on influence factors of small punch test to evaluate the mechanical properties of gradient nanostructured material

Abstract The influence factors of small punch test (SPT) were investigated to evaluate the mechanical properties of gradient nanostructured (GNS) materials. The gradient nanostructure was prepared on the top layer of S30408 austenitic stainless steel by ultrasonic impact treatment (UIT). The mechanical properties of the GNS material were obtained using SPT and correlated with those obtained by standard tensile tests. The results indicate that, when the specimen thickness is 0.5 mm, the sphere diameter is 2.4 mm, the punch velocity is 0.5 mm min−1, and the gradient nano-grained layer is placed face-on in the mold, the GNS material exhibits better plastic deformability. The SPT specimen achieves better bearing capacity, and the mechanical properties of the GNS material obtained by SPT are more accurate. The yield strength and tensile strength of the GNS material were also evaluated by analytical and empirical methods in SPT. The error is approximately 10% compared with the standard tensile test results, which is within the allowable range.

Simplified Direct Strength Method for the design of cold-formed steel channels with circular web openings under two-flange loadings

Previous studies have put forward reduction factor equations to determine the web crippling strength of cold-formed steel (CFS) channels with circular web openings. However, these equations overlook vital parameters such as material yield strength, flange width, and fillet radius of CFS channels. Consequently, this paper introduces simplified Direct Strength Method (DSM) equations, which account for plastic loads (Py) and elastic buckling loads (Pcr), integrating the aforementioned crucial parameters. Eight unique yield line models were devised, considering two-flange loadings: interior-two-flange (ITF) and end-two-flange (ETF), as well as the positioning of circular web openings, to compute the yield line length for Py. Similarly, new Pcr equations were also proposed. The reliability of the proposed equations was evaluated using a dataset of 236 test results sourced from the literature. This assessment aims to demonstrate the suitability of the equations for incorporation into future revisions of international design codes.

Research on the Mechanical Response and Constitutive Model of 18Ni300 Manufactured by SLM with Different Build Directions.

Metals manufactured by selective laser melting (SLM) with different directions exhibit different mechanical properties. This study conducted dynamic and static mechanical tests using a universal testing machine and split-Hopkinson bar (SHPB). The mechanical properties of 18Ni300 with 0° and 90° build directions manufactured by SLM were compared, and the micro-structure properties of the two build directions were analysed by metallographic tests. The Johnson-Cook (J-C) constitutive model was fitted according to the experimental results, and the obtained constitutive parameters were verified by numerical simulations. The results revealed that the constitutive model could predict the mechanical properties of 18Ni300 in a dynamic state. The build direction had little influence on the mechanical properties in a static state, but there was a significant difference in the dynamic state. The difference in the dynamic compressive yield strength of the 18Ni300 material manufactured by SLM with two build directions was 9.8%. The SLM process can be improved to produce 18Ni300 with uniform mechanical properties by studying the reasons for this difference.

Prediction of Mechanical Properties of Lattice Structures: An Application of Artificial Neural Networks Algorithms.

The yield strength and Young's modulus of lattice structures are essential mechanical parameters that influence the utilization of materials in the aerospace and medical fields. Currently, accurately determining the Young's modulus and yield strength of lattice structures often requires conduction of a large number of experiments for prediction and validation purposes. To save time and effort to accurately predict the material yield strength and Young's modulus, based on the existing experimental data, finite element analysis is employed to expand the dataset. An artificial neural network algorithm is then used to establish a relationship model between the topology of the lattice structure and Young's modulus (the yield strength), which is analyzed and verified. The Gibson-Ashby model analysis indicates that different lattice structures can be classified into two main deformation forms. To obtain an artificial neural network model that can accurately predict different lattice structures and be deployed in the prediction of BCC-FCC lattice structures, the artificial network model is further optimized and validated. Concurrently, the topology of disparate lattice structures gives rise to a certain discrete form of their dominant deformation, which consequently affects the neural network prediction. In conclusion, the prediction of Young's modulus and yield strength of lattice structures using artificial neural networks is a feasible approach that can contribute to the development of lattice structures in the aerospace and medical fields.

Devising a calculation method for modern structures of current-conducting elements in large electric machines in a three-dimensional statement

The jumpers of rotor pole-to-pole connections are highly stressed elements in a hydraulic generator structure. These assemblies often fail due to deformation that exceeds the size of an air gap. Existing methods do not take into account the thermal component and attempts to improve the design are not based on mathematical models that make it possible to perform calculations with an accuracy of more than 50 %. The method devised in this work makes it possible to obtain boundary conditions of the third kind on the basis of three-dimensional mathematical modeling of the ventilation system of the hydraulic unit without simplifications. The method accuracy is explained by taking into account the spatial thermal component. The heat transfer coefficient determined by this method in the pole-to-pole connections area was ~250 W/(m2·K). Using FEM, mathematical modeling of the thermal stress state of pole-to-pole connections was carried out, taking into account mechanical and thermal factors. This made it possible to design the improved connection structure with additional fastening elements, which make it possible to reduce the displacement to 0.03 mm, and the stress to 53 MPa at the rotor rotation frequency of 880 rpm. This design makes it possible to enable reliable operation of the hydraulic unit under the condition of increasing the rotor rotation frequency to overspeed with disconnected combinatorial dependence, provided that the actual stresses are 0.95 % of the material yield strength. The convergence of the values obtained by the proposed method and by the HSS method exceeded 99 %. The practical result is the proposals for the hydraulic generator design modernization

Enhancing strength and ductility in Fe–20Mn–9Al-1.5C austenitic low-density steels through Ni and Cr alloying synergy adding

In this investigation, a Fe–20Mn–9Al-1.5C lightweight austenitic steel has been developed through strategic alloying with Ni and Cr elements coupled with the employment of a thermo-mechanical processing technique featuring ultra-fast cooling. This composition and treatment synergistically transcend the conventional trade-off between strength and ductility, positioning the mechanical performance of this steel notably above that of comparable low-density austenitic steels previously reported. The coordinated incorporation of Ni and Cr is key to modulating the precipitation threshold for nanoscale κ-carbides and LRO domains, achieving an optimal size for precipitate-induced strengthening. The incorporation of Cr specifically contributes to a dual enhancement mechanism: it fosters the generation of high-density dislocation arrays (HDDA) and refines the dynamic slip band (DSBR) during deformation, which in turn, elevates the strain hardenability and ductility. The remarkable synergy in strength and ductility is attributed to a combination of mechanisms including grain boundary reinforcement, solid solution hardening, the precipitation strengthening effect of nanoscale precipitates, and the activation of secondary slip system dislocations. This synergy is quantitatively reflected in the material's yield strength (YS) exceeding 1100 MPa, ultimate tensile strength (UTS) surpassing 1200 MPa, and a total elongation (TEL) exceeding 45%. The insights gained from this research provide critical guidance for the design and creation of austenitic low-density steels that do not compromise between strength and ductility, thereby offering superior overall performance.

Parametric Optimization of Structural Frame Design for High Payload Hexacopter

For drones, the use of which has been increasing recently for load carrying, lightweight drone frame design is significant for increased flight time and payload capacity. Drones are produced in different configurations with three, four or six rotors, and in different sizes depending on the purpose of use. While agility is more important in three and four rotor drone applications, six-rotor and relatively large-bodied drones are preferred in cases such as load carrying. When the body structure has to be large, lightening the design becomes very critical. Lightweight designs can be achieved by two commonly used methods for structural optimization: topology optimization and parametric optimization. Topology optimization is an advanced method that can significantly reduce weight but is expensive and time-consuming. Parametric optimization is a more practical approach for conventional manufacturing methods and was used in this study. This study aims to first simplifying the hexacopter frame model and defining key geometric parameters for mass-decreasing optimization. Finite element analysis simulations were used to evaluate the strength and deformation of the frame under various design scenarios. The results showed that parametric optimization successfully reduced the weight of the hexacopter frame while maintaining structural integrity. The maximum Von Mises stress was found as approximately one quarter of the yield strength of the frame material. The maximum total deformation was achieved below 0.3 mm, and deformation under 1 mm is considered safe in the literature. As a result, the optimized design offers a lighter drone structure in line with conventional manufacturing methods, providing better flight time and payload capacity while maintaining cost effectiveness. In future studies, comparisons can be made based on this study by performing weight optimizations suitable for current methods such as topology optimization or generative design. the cost factor and the availability of existing production lines should be taken into consideration when comparing the mentioned methods with parametric optimization.