Materials For Medical Applications Research Articles

Scalable Processing of Glass with Multi‐Functional Cu Coating

AbstractFunctional glass has been intensively studied as a future material with improved comfort, safety, and practicality across a variety of settings, including industrial, and residential environments. The integration of copper coatings on glass is noteworthy for its broad‐spectrum germicidal properties. When applied to frequently touched surfaces, this copper‐enhanced glass plays a crucial role in controlling infections, underscoring its significance in healthcare and public health contexts. Herein, an innovative approach for processing multifunctional copper coating on glass through atmospheric plasma spraying (APS) is introduced. The Cu coating demonstrates remarkable bactericidal efficiency against both Gram‐positive and Gram‐negative bacteria, achieving a 99.9% inhibition rate within 5 h. Moreover, the coating maintains its biocidal effectiveness for up to 3 days against these bacterial strains. The Cu coated glass also incorporates an electrical heating function. This feature allows the glass to increase its surface temperature by ≈7 °C with a minimal power load of 2V. The coating's transparency is variable and can be adjusted through the APS parameters, depending on the desired copper surface coverage. The combination of superior antibacterial properties and electrical heating capability makes the Cu coated glass as high‐performance material for medical applications, offering dual functions of infection control and temperature regulation.

Green in-situ immobilization of ZnO nanoparticles for functionalization of polyester fabrics

Medical textiles have gained significant interest for their capability to prevent the transmission of infectious diseases and ensure the safety of healthcare professionals. Nevertheless, the incorporation of eco-friendly methods to enhance the functionality of these textiles, achieving both impressive antibacterial features and notable ultraviolet (UV) protection, along with thermal stability for effective use in UV-induced clean chambers, remains a complex undertaking. The main objective of this study is to explore the application of the green chemistry method in immobilizing zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles (NPs) onto polydopamine (PDA)-templated polyester (PET) fabrics for potential use in medical textiles. Specifically, we examined the impact of varying the concentration of the zinc acetate dihydrate as the Zn precursor on the synthesis of ZnO NPs. Nanoparticle morphology and topography were analyzed using SEM and AFM. Elemental and chemical characteristics were further assessed through EDS analysis, FT-IR analysis, Raman spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques. The results indicate that ZnO NPs immobilized on PDA-templated PET fabrics exhibit exceptional antibacterial and UV protection properties. Moreover, the presence of the ZnO/PDA layer on the PET fabric significantly enhances its thermal stability, making it an ideal candidate for medical textile applications.

Multifunctional poly(ether‐urethane) elastomer based on dynamic phenol-urethane and disulfide bonds: Simultaneously showing superior toughness, self-healing, shape memory, antibacterial, and antioxidative properties

Multifunctional polymers are highly desirable for developing smart materials in medical applications. This study proposed a facile strategy to fabricate a new multifunctional poly(ether‐urethane) incorporating disulfide bonds and phenol-urethane bonds (PEU−TS). The distinctive feature of the designed PEU−TS elastomers was the presence of abundant phenolic hydroxyl groups, dynamic aromatic disulfide bonds, phenol-urethane bonds, and multiple H-bonds between urethane groups and tannic acid (TA) molecules, which endowed the materials with superior antibacterial and antioxidative activities, self‐healing capabilities, and shape memory functions. Furthermore, the phenol-carbamate crosslinked networks enhanced the tensile properties and improved the biostability of the elastomers. Biocompatibility evaluation further demonstrated that networked PEU−TS composites possessed favorable cell viability and high cytocompatibility. The multifunctional PEU−TS elastomers with robust tensile properties hold great potential for application in durable implants and chronic wound dressings. This elaborate design could inspire the development of multifunctional PU materials over wide medical applications.

Shape memory and mechanical properties of ESO modified epoxy/polyurethane semi-interpenetrating polymer networks for smart plaster

While numerous studies have explored the potential of shape memory materials in medical applications, the current research output is not enough for significant productivity in industrial products. In this research, a type of shape memory orthopedic plaster was fabricated by using epoxy/polyurethane interpenetrating networks modified with epoxidized soybean oil (ESO) and then compared with some commercial plasters. Polymer networks that were produced could be tailored to have glass transition temperatures (Tgs) within the range of 70–90 °C by changing the percentage composition of polyurethane and soybean oil. Shape recovery and fixity ratios in all samples were above 95 and 97 %. DMA results showed that IPNs with variable amount of soybean oil had lower glass transition temperature (Tg) and cross-link densities compared to IPNs without soybean oil. Based on the tensile test results, most samples exhibited an elastic modulus in the range of 280–400MPa, a level deemed somewhat acceptable when compared to commercial samples. Light microscope images had shown that the increase of polyurethane led to the phase separation of polymers, which was improved by the addition of soybean oil.

The effect of electro blow spinning parameters on the characteristics of polylactic acid nanofibers: Towards green development of high-performance biodegradable membrane

Electro-blow spinning represents a novel and emerging hybridised technology for producing high-quality, large-scale nanofibers. The applied pressure, accompanied by an electric field, functions as a drafting force to generate ultrafine, homogeneous nanofibers. Herein, we utilised a sustainable solvent to produce polylactic acid nanofibers via the electro-blow spinning technique. A parametric study investigating the effect of polymer concentration, pressure, and voltage on the characteristics of the produced nanofibers was thoroughly conducted. The produced nanofibers were tested using scanning electron microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, and tensile test. The findings revealed that air pressure plays a crucial role in the electro-blow spinning process, while introducing electric field enhances the spinnability and stretchability of nanofibers. Increasing the applied pressure and voltage led to finer fibres with improved crystallinity and mechanical strength. However, excessive pressure or voltage can cause jet instability, resulting in defects such as fused or broken fibres. Our study suggests that the most recommended parameters for uniform and high-quality nanofibers are 10 wt%, 5 bar, and 20 kV. Moreover, the polylactic acid nanofibers were further evaluated for air filtration performance using a customised filtration setup to determine their suitability as a facemask material. The results indicated a notably high filtration efficiency, reaching up to 98 %, with a corresponding pressure drop between 137 and 163 Pa. These preliminary findings strongly suggest that produced nanofibers are highly promising candidates for medical textile applications, particularly in the development of facemasks.

Biomedical Composites of Polycaprolactone/Hydroxyapatite for Bioplotting: Comprehensive Interpretation of the Reinforcement Course.

Robust materials in medical applications are sought after and researched, especially for 3D printing in bone tissue engineering. Poly[ε-caprolactone] (PCL) is a commonly used polymer for scaffolding and other medical uses. Its strength is a drawback compared to other polymers. Herein, PCL was mixed with hydroxyapatite (HAp). Composites were developed at various concentrations (0.0-8.0 wt. %, 2.0 step), aiming to enhance the strength of PCL with a biocompatible additive in bioplotting. Initially, pellets were derived from the shredding of filaments extruded after mixing PCL and HAp at predetermined quantities for each composite. Specimens were then manufactured by bioplotting 3D printing. The samples were tested for their thermal and rheological properties and were also mechanically, morphologically, and chemically examined. The mechanical properties included tensile and flexural investigations, while morphological and chemical examinations were carried out employing scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive spectroscopy, respectively. The structure of the manufactured specimens was analyzed using micro-computed tomography with regard to both their dimensional deviations and voids. PCL/HAp 6.0 wt. % was the composite that showed the most enhanced mechanical (14.6% strength improvement) and structural properties, proving the efficiency of HAp as a reinforcement filler in medical applications.

Combined bulk nanostructuring and surface modifications of titanium substrate for improved corrosion behavior

Titanium has proven to be a game-changing biomaterial in biomedical engineering. Titanium and its alloys offer superior properties such as machinability, mechanical strength, biocompatibility, and corrosion resistance, making them indispensable for safer and more efficient biomedical treatments. While commercially pure titanium (Cp-Ti) is an exceptional material for medical applications, it has some limitations. Allergic reactions can manifest as localized inflammation around the implant, and corrosion compromises implant stability. Corrosion starts with cracking from the surface and disrupts the protective passive oxide layer when touching body fluids, and failure occurs. This study utilized a combination of techniques including grain refinement of Cp-Ti via equal channel angular pressing (ECAP), two-step anodization (for creating titanium oxide nanotubes coatings), annealing at 450°C and 570°C, and immersion in simulated body fluid (SBF) to create a Hydroxyapatite (HA) film coating. These methods addressed various challenges and provided a positive approach to improving corrosion behavior. The microstructure of Nano-Ti was evaluated by Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). The morphology of the as-anodized samples and corroded areas were investigated using field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The crystalline phases of titanium nanotubes (TNTs) were evaluated through X-ray diffraction (XRD). The presence of hydroxyapatite particles was analyzed and characterized by FESEM coupled with Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) and Fourier Transform Infrared-Attenuated Total Reflection (FTIR-ATR). The corrosion behavior was evaluated using a potentiodynamic polarization test and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Results indicated that grain refinement and successive surface modifications significantly impact corrosion performance. The nanostructured (Nano-Ti) sample, after the final modification stage, exhibited an approximately 11-fold decrease in corrosion rate and over a 450-fold rise in polarization resistance (7.4 MΩ) compared to as-anodized Cp-Ti sample and a 7-fold increase in its Cp-Ti counterpart, and showed excellent adhesion strength compared to other samples.

Mechanical properties and biodegradability of crab shell-derived exoskeletons in orthopedic implant design

This review paper explores the innovative application of crab shell-derived exoskeleton materials, specifically chitin and chitosan, in the design of orthopedic implants. The urgent need for sustainable, biocompatible, and mechanically robust materials in medical applications guides this comprehensive analysis. We assess the mechanical properties of crab shell derivatives, highlighting their adequate strength and durability which are essential for successful orthopedic applications. This study also evaluates the biodegradability of these materials, an attribute that stands out for its potential to minimize long-term bodily impacts and reduce the need for secondary surgeries. Comparative analyses against traditional implant materials such as metals and ceramics are provided to underline the advantages and current limitations of crab shell-derived biopolymers. The review encompasses recent case studies and design innovations, including advanced fabrication techniques like 3D printing, which could integrate these biopolymers into future orthopedic solutions. Finally, we discuss the ongoing challenges and research gaps that must be addressed to harness the full potential of these biological materials in clinical settings. This paper aims to inform researchers and practitioners about the promising prospects of crab shell-derived materials, advocating for continued research and development in this promising area of orthopedic implant technology.

Hydroxyapatite biomaterials: a comprehensive review of their properties, structures, clinical applications, and producing techniques

Abstract Before employing a biomedical material in medical applications, a researcher must possess comprehensive knowledge regarding its chemical, physical, biological, structural, and mechanical properties. Hydroxyapatite (HAp, Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2) is a vital constituent of the calcium orthophosphate group. The material exhibits good dielectric and biological compatibility, diamagnetic behavior, thermal stability, osteoconductivity, and bioactivity. Additionally, it has a Ca:P molar ratio of 1.67. Because HAp has a chemical composition that is quite similar to normal bone and teeth, it has the potential to be used as a material for implant implantation in fractured portions of the human skeletal system. Many ways for generating HAp nanoparticles have been found as a result of the increasing usage of HAp in medicine. The conditions under which HAp is generated determine its physical and chemical properties, crystalline structure, and form. This study provides detailed information on the HAp’s characteristics and manufacturing procedures, as well as revealing the structure and its properties.

Valorisation of Wool Waste and Chicken Feathers for Medical Textile Applications

Waste valorisation is the key to waste minimization. Chicken feathers and wool fabric waste are rich in protein content. Keratin forms a major part of these two materials. However, these keratin rich material are often discarded and finally end up as waste in landfills or incinerated. This research aims to upcycle woolen waste and chicken feathers by selectively extracting keratin from them. This study reports the development of a wound-healing nanofibre patch derived from non-conventional keratin sources like waste wool and chicken feathers. It aims to repurpose these abundant and underutilised materials, taking advantage of their high crude protein content. A three-step process for developing wound healing material is reported: cleaning waste wool and chicken feathers and extracting keratin to make electrospun nanofibre patch. The electrospun keratin patch is incorporated with honey, a natural antiseptic agent for producing desired wound healing properties. The extraction of keratin is initially tested qualitatively using Biuret test. The Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) images confirm the successful electrospinning of keratin nanofibres, demonstrating a well-defined and uniform fibrous surface morphology. The FT-IR spectrum confirms the presence of functional groups associated with keratin. Furthermore, the antimicrobial study shows promising results, indicating that the protein-based nanofiber patch supports cell growth activity. These findings suggest that the keratin-based nanofiber patch derived from waste wool and chicken feathers has the potential to facilitate the regeneration of damaged tissue and can aid in the wound-healing process. The findings of these study confirms possible extraction of keratin from wool waste and chicken feathers and its application in medical textile applications.

The Effects of Ozone Sterilization on the Chemical and Mechanical Properties of 3D-Printed Biocompatible PMMA.

Since ozone is highly corrosive, it can substantially affect the mechanical and chemical properties of the materials; consequently, it could affect the applicability of those materials in medical applications. The effect of ozone sterilization on the chemical and mechanical properties of additively manufactured specimens of biocompatible poly(methyl-methacrylate) was observed. FDM 3D-printed specimens of biocompatible PMMA in groups of five were exposed to high concentrations of ozone generated by corona discharge for different durations and at different ozone concentrations inside an enclosed chamber with embedded and calibrated ozone, temperature, and humidity sensors. A novel approach using laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) and spark-discharge optical emission spectrometry (SD-OES) was used to determine an eventual change in the chemical composition of specimens. Mechanical properties were determined by testing the tensile strength and Young's modulus. A calibrated digital microscope was used to observe the eventual degradation of material on the surface of the specimens. SD-OES and LIF analysis results do not show any detectable sterilization-caused chemical degradation, and no substantial difference in mechanical properties was detected. There was no detectable surface degradation observed under the digital microscope. The results obtained suggest that ozone sterilization appears to be a suitable technique for sterilizing PMMA medical devices.

Encapsulation and functionalization strategies of organic phase change materials in medical applications

Encapsulation and functionalization strategies of organic phase change materials in medical applications

Hydrogel-assisted microfluidic wet spinning of poly(lactic acid) fibers from a green and pro-crystallization spinning dope

Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) fibers have found a broad range of applications in medical textiles. While traditional spinning methods usually involve harsh conditions, such as high temperatureor toxic organic solvents, the challenges in producing PLA fibers via a green route are yet to be overcome. Herein, we described a new strategy for PLA fiber production, which combines the controlled and benign spinning conditions enabled by microfluidics and a novel green spinning dope with bio-sourced CyreneTMas a non-toxic solvent for PLA. This strategy is enabled by the in-situ formation of ahydrogel shell around the focused PLA/Cyrene™spinning dope stream. This hydrogel shell stabilizes the core stream and facilitates the solidification of the PLA fiber. Our hydrogel-assisted microfluidic wet spinning (HA-MWS) strategy represents the first-ever method that allows for the continuous room-temperature production of highly porous PLA fibers (porosity > 80 %) without the need for petroleum-based chemicals. We characterized the solution properties of the PLA/CyreneTMspinning dope and discovered that CyreneTMcan induce PLA crystallization, with resultant crystals acting as cross-linking centers for the spinning dope gelation. We then explored the microfluidic wet spinning process, using the spinning dope as the core flow and the alginate aqueous solution as the shell flow to achieve controlled fiber production. The resulting PLA fibers underwent comprehensive morphological, structural, and mechanical characterization. Our process enables the green productionofPLA fibers under mild conditions.More importantly, a bio-based green and pro-crystallization solvent was for the first time used to develop PLA spinning dope, which gives rise to a range of promising fiber properties (e.g. high porosity), which can broaden potential biomedical applications of PLA fibers.

Utilization of Waste Natural Fibers Mixed with Polylactic Acid (PLA) Bicomponent Fiber: Incorporating Kapok and Cattail Fibers for Nonwoven Medical Textile Applications.

Disposable surgical gowns are usually made from petroleum-based synthetic fibers that do not naturally decompose, impacting the environment. A promising approach to diminish the environmental impact of disposable gowns involves utilizing natural fibers and/or bio-based synthetic fibers. In this study, composite webs from polylactic acid (PLA) bicomponent fiber and natural fibers, cattail and kapok fibers, were prepared using the hot press method. Only the sheath region of the PLA bicomponent fiber melted, acting as an adhesive that enhanced the strength and reduced the thickness of the composite web compared with its state before hot pressing. The mechanical and physical properties of these composite webs were evaluated. Composite webs created from kapok fibers displayed a creamy yellowish-white color, while those made from cattail fibers showed a light yellowish-brown color. Additionally, the addition of natural fibers endowed the composite webs with hydrophobic properties. The maximum natural fiber content, at a ratio of 30:70 (natural fiber to PLA fiber), can be incorporated while maintaining proper water vapor permeability and mechanical properties. This nonwoven material presents an alternative with the potential to replace petroleum-based surgical gowns.

Synthesis Optimization and Antibacterial Performance of Colloidal Silver Nanoparticles in Chitosan

Colloidal silver nanoparticles were successfully synthesized via the chemical reduction method. The synthesis used AgNO3 as the precursor, chitosan as the reducing and stabilizing agents, and NaOH as the accelerator. The synthesis parameters were optimized. The samples were tested with a UV-vis spectrophotometer to observe their localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) phenomenon, a transmission electron microscope (TEM), and a particle size analyzer (PSA) to investigate their particle shape and size distribution. Further, silver nanoparticles were tested for their storage stability and antibacterial performance. The UV-vis spectroscopy data exhibited that the silver nanoparticles have been successfully synthesized, validating via the emergence of the LSPR absorption band at 402–418 nm. At 50 °C, the optimum synthesis was achieved for 100 min of reaction time by adding 0.033 M NaOH and AgNO3 4.00% (w/w, AgNO3/chitosan). TEM results showed spherical silver nanoparticles of 1–8 nm, while the PSA results exhibited particles sizes of about 12–59 nm. The colloidal silver nanoparticles were stable in storage for 8 weeks and had good antibacterial performance against E. coli, S. aureus, extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBL), and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). Therefore, colloidal silver nanoparticles have the potential as a material for medical applications.

Sponge-like wet electrospun polycaprolactone fibres

Polycaprolactone biocompatible and biodegradable fibrous materials with hierarchically-structured fibres provide appropriate materials for medical applications. Wet electrospinning is used to produce structured fibrous materials with specific properties. Via the careful choice of the polymer, solvent system and collector liquid, it is possible to produce unusual fibre shapes and structures. In general, wet electrospinning produces bulky structures. Moreover, by using a combination of a liquid collector containing a mixture of a non-solvent and a partial solvent, it is possible to obtain large internal porosity sponge-like fibres and tubular hollow fibres with porous walls. This article presents optimized material parameters and the respective electrospinning production process parameters for this production approach, as well as an analysis of the material via scanning electron microscopy and differential scanning calorimetry.

Learning to Control a Three-Dimensional Ferrofluidic Robot.

In recent years, ferrofluids have found increased popularity as a material for medical applications, such as ocular surgery, gastrointestinal surgery, and cancer treatment, among others. Ferrofluidic robots are multifunctional and scalable, exhibit fluid properties, and can be controlled remotely; thus, they are particularly advantageous for such medical tasks. Previously, ferrofluidic robot control has been achieved via the manipulation of handheld permanent magnets or in current-controlled electromagnetic fields resulting in two-dimensional position and shape control and three-dimensional (3D) coupled position-shape or position-only control. Control of ferrofluidic liquid droplet robots poses a unique challenge where model-based control has been shown to be computationally limiting. Thus, in this study, a model-free control method is chosen, and it is shown that the task of learning optimal control parameters for ferrofluidic robot control can be performed using machine learning. Particularly, we explore the use of Bayesian optimization to find optimal controller parameters for 3D pose control of a ferrofluid droplet: its centroid position, stretch direction, and stretch radius. We demonstrate that the position, stretch direction, and stretch radius of a ferrofluid droplet can be independently controlled in 3D with high accuracy and precision, using a simple control approach. Finally, we use ferrofluidic robots to perform pick-and-place, a lab-on-a-chip pH test, and electrical switching, in 3D settings. The purpose of this research is to expand the potential of ferrofluidic robots by introducing full pose control in 3D and to showcase the potential of this technology in the areas of microassembly, lab-on-a-chip, and electronics. The approach presented in this research can be used as a stepping-off point to incorporate ferrofluidic robots toward future research in these areas.

Calcium Ions-Driven Hydrogel Scaffold Toward the Robust Antioxidant and Anticancer Biomaterials

The presented investigation attempts to unveil the novel approach to prepare glucomannan/collagen-based hydrogel through the utilization of calcium ions (i.e., Ca2+) as the cross-linker. The achieved composite provides an appropriate scaffold for the deposition of gallic acid as an active species. It turns out that gallic acid-decorated glucomannan/Ca2+/collagen composite (denoted as KGM/Ca2+/Col/GA) shows a great capacity to prevent free radicals in the antioxidant test. Impressively, the as-generated KGM/Ca2+/Col/GA sample demonstrates a robust capability to inhibit KB cells in the cytotoxic evaluation, associated with an extremely low IC50 value (e.g., 8.8±0.5 μg/mL). Such pieces of evidence suggest the potential application of KGM/Ca/Col/GA hydrogel material in medical applications.

Human Bone-Marrow-Derived Stem-Cell-Seeded 3D Chitosan-Gelatin-Genipin Scaffolds Show Enhanced Extracellular Matrix Mineralization When Cultured under a Perfusion Flow in Osteogenic Medium.

Tissue-engineered bone tissue grafts are a promising alternative to the more conventional use of natural donor bone grafts. However, choosing an appropriate biomaterial/scaffold to sustain cell survival, proliferation, and differentiation in a 3D environment remains one of the most critical issues in this domain. Recently, chitosan/gelatin/genipin (CGG) hybrid scaffolds have been proven as a more suitable environment to induce osteogenic commitment in undifferentiated cells when doped with graphene oxide (GO). Some concern is, however, raised towards the use of graphene and graphene-related material in medical applications. The purpose of this work was thus to check if the osteogenic potential of CGG scaffolds without added GO could be increased by improving the medium diffusion in a 3D culture of differentiating cells. To this aim, the level of extracellular matrix (ECM) mineralization was evaluated in human bone-marrow-derived stem cell (hBMSC)-seeded 3D CGG scaffolds upon culture under a perfusion flow in a dedicated custom-made bioreactor system. One week after initiating dynamic culture, histological/histochemical evaluations of CGG scaffolds were carried out to analyze the early osteogenic commitment of the culture. The analyses show the enhanced ECM mineralization of the 3D perfused culture compared to the static counterpart. The results of this investigation reveal a new perspective on more efficient clinical applications of CGG scaffolds without added GO.

Strength stability over loading time of zirconia-hydroxyapatite composites

Zirconia (ZrO2) and hydroxyapatite (HAp) are commonly used as materials for medical applications, especially in implants, due to their excellent mechanical properties and bioactive function. Their composites characterize with good mechanical (similar Young's modulus and compressive strength to bone) and biological properties such as: higher bioactivity and biocompatibility. In this paper 3YZrO2 -HAp composites were prepared from the nanometric powders via the wet-mixing process and the pressure-less sintering in the air atmosphere at .1150 °C. Then they were examined in terms of properties. The shrinkage was tested using a dilatometer. The structural properties of the specimens were analyzed by X-ray diffraction, Infrared (MIR) and Raman spectroscopy. The morphology of HAp and the microstructure of the 3YZrO2 -HAp composites were evaluated using TEM and SEM microscopy. The samples’ mechanical properties, such as flexural strength and the Young’s modulus, were measured using the biaxial loading method. The hardness and KIC were examined using the Vickers indentation technique. The mechanical tests showed that all the materials revealed susceptibility to subritical cracking - the higher content of HAp in the composites, the weaker tendency of slow crack growth. The bioactive modifier addition decreased the hardness and KIC of the composites and the other mechanical properties. The microstructure investigation showed that the HAp incorporation into the 3Y-ZrO2 matrix led to higher porosity and the growth of 3Y-ZrO2 grains size, as compared to 3Y-ZrO2 without addition. The XRD results confirmed the MIR and Raman ones. They revealed the HAp decomposition into β-TCP. Additionally, the phase transition of the tetragonal ZrO2(T) into the cubic ZrO2(C) was noted with the increasing HAp content in the composites. The composites’ mechanical properties met the requirements of cancellous bone and may serve as an alternative to biomaterials for bone repair and regeneration processes.