Master Athletes Research Articles

Age and Sex Differences in IRONMAN World Championship Performance.

Gries, KJ and Witto, PE. Age and sex differences in IRONMAN world championship performance. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2024-There has been an increasing number of masters athletes, particularly women, who have been competing in ultra-endurance events. With this in mind, we sought to determine the influence of age and sex on IRONMAN World Championship performances from 2014 to 2023. The final times of each component (swim, bike, and run) and overall time were collected for places 1st to 10th in each age group (18-69 years). Sex differences in performance were calculated for each age group. Depth of field (time of nth place/first place), a surrogate for participation, was also calculated for each age group and sex. Significance was set at p < 0.05. These data show a ∼12% sex difference in the performance of the swim, bike, run, and final (p < 0.05), which increased to 20% in the 65-69 years age group (p < 0.05). The differences appeared driven by the bike and run. Depth of field was greater in men than in women (p < 0.05), and the sex difference increased with age. Sex differences in performance trended to be related to depth of field (p = 0.08; R2 = 0.32), suggesting a moderate role of participation in performance sex differences. Although speculative, the performance data can give us an insight into the physiology and sociology of these elite athletes and warrants future research.

The future of physiological research: A greater understanding of female master athletes and aging?

High caliber master athletes provide a valuable model for studying inherent physiological aging and performance capacity, without the confounding factor of physical inactivity. Despite the remarkable achievements of female master athletes, their participation rates remain significantly lower than those of their male counterparts, particularly at more advanced ages. This review examines the biological sex gap in sports participation among master athletes and the subsequent disparity in empirical research, thereafter exploring possible contributing factors. It highlights the importance of studying female master athletes to better understand the aging process and offers recommendations to address current evidence gaps. The need for more comprehensive mechanistic data on highly trained older women, novel cataloguing and analysis of real-world datasets, case studies/series, and longitudinal research are also emphasized. Although analyzing the records of female master athletes as a surrogate to determine age-related physiological and performance changes is a common approach, the process may be hindered by the considerably lower participation rates of women. Therefore, an important step toward bridging these gaps is the longitudinal, integrative study of female athletes engaged in lifelong exercise. Such analyses would improve our understanding of senescence in women and may inform interventions targeting the promotion of physical function in older adults.

Atherosclerotic coronary artery disease prevalence in master athletes exhibiting exercise-induced ventricular arrhythmias: relevance for preparticipation screening

Abstract Background Coronary atherosclerotic disease (CAD) is the leading cause of sudden cardiac death among master athletes (≥35 years). During pre-participation screening (PPS), the primary indication for investigating CAD in these population is ST-segment depression (STD) at exercise test (ET). Additionally, a developing indication involves the identification of high-risk premature ventricular beats (PVBs). Nevertheless, the prevalence of CAD among master athletes displaying PVBs remains uncertain. Objective The aim of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of CAD in master athletes who underwent coronary computed tomography (CCT) due to high-risk PVBs during PPS (emerging indication), and to compare this population to age-, gender- and risk factors-matched group of athletes who underwent CCT due to STD during ET (traditional indication). Methods We retrospectively enrolled master athletes with no baseline ECG abnormalities and no previous history of heart disease who underwent CCT because of a positive ET during PPS, for PVBs or STD. The entity of the disease was assessed using the CAD-RADs scoring system. Results The population resulted to be composed by 130 Caucasian athletes, median age 54 (46.5-60.5 years, 84% male), 74% practiced endurance sports. Eighty-two (63%) of them underwent CCT for STD and 48 (37%) for high-risk PVBs. A CAD-RADs of 0 was detected in 64.3% of athletes, 1-2 in 22.2%, 3 in 6.3%, and 4A-4B in 7.1%. A significant CAD was found in 10.4% of athletes investigated for PVBs at ET, and 14.6% in subjects with STD (p=0.5). Among athletes with moderate-severe CAD, 82.4% had one or more cardiovascular risk factors, while 17.6% had no risk factors (Figure 1). Conclusions The prevalence of CAD in master athletes is equivalent in case of PVBs and STD. The severity of CAD increases with an increasing number of cardiovascular risk factors. Therefore, in these cases the number of risk factors is an important variable to consider in the prescription of CCT.Figure 1

Coronary atherosclerotic burden in master athletes: relationship with cardiovascular risk and volume of exercise

Abstract Background Although prior studies suggesting an association between coronary artery calcification (CAC) and lifelong exercise, the clinical relevance and mechanisms for this interaction remains unknown. Recent evidence suggests that a significant amount of exercise might not be linked to a more favourable composition of coronary plaques. We aimed to analyse the prevalence of high coronary atherosclerotic (CAS) burden assessed by coronary CT scan (CCTA) in master athletes, according to cardiovascular (CV) risk and volume of exercise. Methods A total of 105 master male athletes (48±5.6 years old), asymptomatic and without known CV disease, were prospectively studied. A high CAS burden was defined as the presence of at least one of the following characteristics in CCTA: CAC score &amp;gt;100; CAC score &amp;gt;75th percentile; obstructive plaques; plaques in the left main, three vessels or two vessels including the proximal anterior descending artery; segment Involvement Score (SIS) &amp;gt;5; CT-adapted Leaman score (CT-LeSc) ≥5T. his variable was evaluated according to the CV risk, stratified by SCORE2, and volume of exercise, determined by metabolic equivalent task score (MET/hour/week). Results Most athletes (n=88) were engaged in endurance sports, during 17.1±9.8 years, with a median exercise volume of 66 [IQR 44-103] METs/hour/week. The mean SCORE2 was 2.8±1.5%, with 76.9% of athletes classified as having a low to moderate CV risk, and none having very high-risk. A high CAS burden was present in 25.7% of the athletes, without significant differences according to the SCORE2 risk categories [Low- Moderate Vs. High Risk: 25.5% Vs. 37.5%, respectively ; p=0.142] nor volume of exercise [below Vs. above median: 30.6% Vs. 21.4%, respectively; p=0.283)] (Figure 1 A). Combining these variables, athletes with high CV risk and a high volume of exercise showed significantly higher occurrence of a high CAS burden compared to those with low-moderate risk and high volume of exercise (50% Vs. 15.6%; p=0.017). Among athletes with low-moderate risk, high volume of exercise trended to be protective (15.6% Vs. 31.4%; p=0,092), while there was a similar rate of high CAS burden in athletes with low volume of exercise, independently of risk class (Figure 1B). Conclusions In our cohort of master athletes, one fourth demonstrated a high burden of CAS burden evaluated by CCTA. While a higher volume of exercise combined with high cardiovascular risk showed an association with worse coronary composition it trended to be protective in athletes with lower risk. Integrating clinical and exercise-related data is crucial for evaluating athletes amidst the complex associations between exercise, cardiovascular risk, and CAS burden, necessitating longitudinal studies for comprehensive understanding.Figure 1Figure 2

Incidence and characteristics of premature ventricular beats in competitive athletes at preparticipation exercise testing

Abstract Introduction The European Society of Cardiology preparticipation screening (PPS) protocol for athletes includes history, physical examination and resting ECG only. However, adding exercise testing (ET) aimed at evaluating ventricular arrhythmias (VAs) inducibility may increase the chances to identify cardiac diseases at-risk of sudden death that would otherwise be missed. Recent studies showed that the risk that premature ventricular beats (PVBs) at ET are associated to an underlying disease depends not just on their number but on characteristics such as morphology and complexity. However, there are no data on the incidence of at-risk PVBs at ET, thus requiring further tests to rule-out a cardiac disease, in apparently healthy athletes. Aim To assess the incidence and characteristics of VAs in a cohort of apparently healthy athletes undergoing annual PPS including ET. Methods We included a consecutive series of 1431 (24±13 year-old, 75% males) competitive athletes who underwent PPS in 2023. According to the Italian law and national guidelines, PPS must include ET with a different protocol according to age: in athletes younger than 35 years (81% of the study group) a rapid constant-load ET target at evaluating VAs inducibility was performed while in athletes older than 35 years a standard incremental ET was carried out. PVBs recorded during ET were assessed in terms of morphology, complexity and response to exercise. Results the incidence of at least 1 PVB was 14.5%, with a statistically significant increase according to age (p&amp;lt;0.001, Figure). If only athletes with frequent (at least 5 isolated PVBs) or complex (at least 1 couplet/triplet/NSVT) VAs are considered, the incidence was 4.3%, still with a significant increase according to age. In particular, among athletes older than 35 years, the incidence of PVBs was 34.1% and of frequent/complex PVBs was 15.2%. As shown in the table and figure, more than half of athletes with PVBs showed at-risk features such as persistence/increase (rather than suppression) of VAs during exercise and an "uncommon" morphology (i.e. different than infundibular or fascicular). Conclusions PVBs during ET for preparticipation screening occurred in a sizeable proportion of athletes, particularly in those older than 35 years, and many showed at-risk features such as complexity, uncommon morphologies or exercise-inducibility. Despite VAs at ET may be the only sign of a disease at risk of sudden death, their high incidence may substantially impact on the need for further investigations after PPS. Hence, more efforts should be put to identify which PVBs characteristics are predictive for an underlying cardiac disease, particularly in master athletes.

Value of preparticipation cardiovascular evaluation of master athletes by self-reported symptoms and cardiovascular risk-score

Purpose The risk of sudden cardiac death (SCD) is increased during endurance competitive sports. Coronary artery disease (CAD) is the most common cause of SCD in master athletes ≥ 35 years old (MAs). To reduce the risk of SCD self-assessment of symptoms by questionnaire, and evaluation of cardiovascular risk-score, are recommended as pre-participation cardiovascular evaluation (PCVE). We aimed to examine whether PCVE predicts CVD in MAs with or without increased risk as measured by validated score instruments. Methods We performed a single-site observational cohort study of healthy MAs based on findings at PCVE. They were allocated in two different groups: those MAs with reported symptoms on the questionnaire and/or with elevated cardiovascular risk score were allocated to a symptom group (SG), while MAs with no symptoms, nor raised risk score were defined as control group (CG). Thereafter, all were examined with extended examinations: resting-ECG, cardiorespiratory exercise testing and echocardiography. Results Total, 81 (18 women) MAs participated in the study. There were no differences at baseline between SG (n = 39) and CG (n = 42); sex (p = 0.11), age (55.0 ± 9.8 vs. 51.9 ± 11.1 years; p = 0.18), maximal oxygen uptake (49.8 ± 7.6 vs. 51.6 ± 7.0 ml/kg/min; p = 0.26), resting heart rate (61.4 ± 12.8 vs. 60.2 ± 11.0/min; p = 0.66), training hours/week (7.0 ± 3.2 vs. 7.1 ± 3.1; p = 0.88). After further examination, sixteen (20%) MAs were found with CVD: 12 in SG, 4 in CG (p = 0.024). The negative predictive value and specificity of the PCVE were 90% and 58%, respectively. Conclusion Negative findings on PCVE by questionnaire and cardiovascular risk-score may be a strategy to exclude subjects from preparticipation screening, thus saving resources.

Six-year follow-up of a world record-breaking master marathon runner.

Endurance performance declines with advancing age. Of the three main physiological factors that determine endurance running performance [maximal oxygen consumption (V̇o2max), lactate threshold, and running economy (RE)], V̇o2max appears to be most affected by age. Although endurance performance declines with age, recently, endurance performance has rapidly improved in master athletes as the number of master athletes competing in endurance events has increased. Master athletes represent an intriguing model to study healthy aging. In this case study, we reassessed the physiological profile of a 76-yr-old distance runner who broke the marathon world record for men over 70 yr of age in 2018. This runner was tested a few months before breaking the world record and retested in 2024. Between 2018 and 2024, his marathon running velocity decreased significantly. Therefore, the purpose of this case study was to determine the physiological changes that explain his performance decline. RE remained similar to 2018, and while there was not a clear breakpoint in blood lactate, he still likely runs marathons at a high percentage (∼90%) of his V̇o2max. However, V̇o2max declined by 15.1%. HRmax declined by 3.2% and maximal O2 pulse declined by 12.4%, suggesting that maximal stroke volume and/or arteriovenous O2 difference decreased. Altogether, although this marathoner continues to compete at an elite level, his performance has declined since his record-breaking marathon due to a reduction in V̇o2max. This is likely caused by reductions in maximal stroke volume and/or arteriovenous O2 difference. We speculate that these changes reflect primarily age-related processes.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We performed 6-yr follow-up testing on a world record-breaking master marathon runner. We determined that his performance declined since his record-breaking marathon in 2018 primarily due to a reduction in V̇o2max. His max heart rate (HR) changed minimally, but his peak O2 pulse decreased, suggesting that his maximal stroke volume and/or arteriovenous O2 difference decreased. These changes likely reflect primarily age-related effects in the absence of an overt pathological disease process.

Cardiovascular risk factors among endurance masters athletes from Switzerland

Cardiovascular risk factors among endurance masters athletes from Switzerland

P012 THE EFFECT OF AGE AND LONG-TERM BLOOD PRESSURE CONTROL ON DIASTOLIC CARDIAC FUNCTION IN MASTERS ATHELETES

Background &amp; Objectives: Arterial hypertension and age underlie the risk for diastolic dysfunction and heart failure with preserved ejection fraction. Blood pressure control and physical exercise are known to ameliorate age related cardiac adaptation. Therefore, we assessed diastolic function including left atrial (LA) strains in Masters Athletes as a model for healthy ageing. Methods: At the World Masters Athletics Championships 2022 in Tampere, Finland 108 Masters Athletes partook in this field-study. Baseline data included body measures, blood pressure, age, sex and sport disciplines. Transthoracic echocardiography was performed analogous to clinical standards. Additionally, LA reservoir strain (LA-Sr) and conduit strain (LA-Scd) were assessed by speckle tracking. Results: Complete data were acquired in 108 (42, 39% female) athletes with a mean age of 62±12 (35-91) years and a body-mass-index of 23,8±2,8 kg/m2. Mean systolic blood pressure was 125±16mmHg, one third (n=36) had values ≥130mmHg. 29 performed endurance, 79 resistance disciplines. LA strain was not influenced by sport discipline nor blood pressure, neither in dichotomization for clinical thresholds nor in linear correlation. Female athletes showed higher LA reservoir and conduit strain (LA-Sr: 29.1±5.3% versus 27±5.5%, p=0.046; LA-Scd: 16.6±6% versus 13.9±5.4%, p=0,018). With increasing age, body-mass-index and left-ventricular-mass-index, LA reservoir and conduit strains declined significantly, independent of blood pressure. In Masters Athletes that did not meet echocardiographic criteria of diastolic dysfunction we found significantly higher LA reservoir and conduit strains than in those with 2 criteria met (LA-Sr 29.8±5.2% versus 25.4±6.6%, p=0.007; LA-Scd -17.3±6% versus -13.4±6.5%, p=0.030). Conclusion: In the specialized cohort of Masters Athletes LA reservoir and conduit strain showed the same dependency from age, body-mass-index and left-ventricular-mass-index as other parameters of diastolic function with higher values in females. Furthermore, impaired diastolic function was associated with decreased LA strain. Therefore, assessment of LA strain seems beneficial beyond classical echocardiographic measurements in determining diastolic function in the elderly. Surprisingly, long-term blood pressure control by physical exercise had no effect on LA strains.

Revealing the unrevealed: echocardiography for non-ischemic scar tissue detection.

The detection of myocardial scar tissue profoundly influences athletes care and prognostic categorization. Athletes appear to be at risk of developing fatal arrhythmias when harboring a quiescent cardiac disorder. Early identification of disease in asymptomatic individuals through preparticipation screening is means to prevent these events. We presented a male marathon runner master athlete who came at our Department of Sports Medicine for a preparticipation screening. Baseline 12-lead standard electrocardiogram was normal. A maximal cycle ergometer exercise test revealed exercise-induced premature ventricular contractions (PVCs) with uncommon morphology. Echocardiography revealed an hyperechogenic zone at mid-basal posterior segments of the left ventricle. Twenty-four-hours ECG Holter monitoring, with training session, showed some isolated polymorphic PVCs even during training session. Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) confirmed the presence of a non-ischemic left ventricular scar (subepicardial) into the mid-basal segment of the posterior wall. Echocardiography is a first-line, economic, and accessible diagnostic test for athletes and it can be useful, when abnormalities are detected, to indicate further investigations, such as CMR. Although non-ischemic left ventricular scarring is difficult to detect on echocardiography, this event is sometimes possible and require further investigation when observed.

Protein intake by master swimmers: Implications for practice in Sports Nutrition-A cross-sectional study.

Background: Proteins are essential for the maintenance, repair, and growth of muscle mass. This is particularly important for master athletes because aging has been associated with loss of muscle mass, function, and strength. Moreover, the timing of intake has been shown important for the best protein utilization. Aim: To analyze timing, quantity, and source of dietary protein in competitive master athletes according to current recommendations. Methods: Twenty-one male master swimmers (47.9 ± 10.0 years; 79.2 ± 6.5 kg; 179.1 ± 5.5 cm; 23.5 ± 4.9% body fat; 73.3 ± 4.2% lean mass) participated in this cross-sectional study. Protein intake was analyzed based on 7-day food records, regarding quantity, timing, and sources of intake. Protein intake was evaluated according to current international sports nutrition guidelines, including the International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand. Body fat (%) and lean mass (%) were evaluated using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Results: Participants' mean protein intakes were 1.9 ± 0.5 g/kg/day, 0.6 ± 0.2 g/kg/meal post-training, and 33.5 ± 23.9 g during the pre-sleep period. Daily intake was within the recommended values of 1.4 and 2.0 g/kg/day (p = 0.01 and 0.147, respectively). Mean pre-sleep intake was within the recommendation values of 30-40 g (p = 0.28 and 0.147, respectively). Most of the daily protein intake was consumed at lunch (66.7 ± 6.9 g) and dinner (48.0 ± 4.5 g). Regarding protein sources, intakes from animal, vegetal, and supplements were, respectively, 65.7%, 29.2%, and 5.1%. Conclusion: Master swimmers presented a total protein intake within the recommendations for a daily basis, but the majority of intake was at lunch and dinner. Protein intake could be better distributed throughout the day to optimize protein synthesis. Guidance on daily protein intake distribution should be reinforced in clinical practice.

Prevalence of electrocardiographic markers associated with myocardial fibrosis in masters athletes: a cohort study

ObjectivesMyocardial fibrosis (MF) is associated with an increased predisposition to adverse cardiac events. The accumulation of high-volume and high-intensity exercise over an extended duration potentially increases the risk of MF....

Pacing strategies in marathons: A systematic review

BackgroundThe pacing strategy embodies the tactical behavior of athletes in distributing their energy across different segments of a race; therefore, a quantitative analysis of pacing strategies in marathon races could deepen the understanding of both pacing behavior and physical capacity in marathon athletics. ObjectiveThe objective of this systematic review was to synthesize and characterize pacing strategies in marathon road races by exploring the categories of pacing strategies and the factors that influence these strategies during marathon events. MethodsPreferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews guidelines were followed for systematic searches, appraisals, and syntheses of literature on this topic. Electronic databases such as Science Direct, SPORTDiscuss, PubMed, and Web of Science were searched up to July 2024. Records were eligible if they included pace performance measurements during competition, without experimental intervention that may influence their pace, in healthy, adult athletes at any level. ResultsA total of 39 studies were included in the review. Twenty-nine were observational studies, and 10 were experimental (randomized controlled trials). The assessment of article quality revealed an overall median NOS score of 8 (range 5–9). The included studies examined the pacing profiles of master athletes and finishers in half-marathon (n = 7, plus numbers compared to full marathon), full-marathon (n = 21), and ultramarathon (n = 11) road races. Considering that some studies refer to multiple pacing strategies, in general, 5 studies (∼13 %) reported even pacing, 3 (∼8 %) reported parabolic pacing, 7 (∼18 %) reported negative pacing, and 30 (∼77 %) reported positive pacing during marathon competitions. Gender, age, performance, pack, and physiological and psychological factors influence pacing strategies. ConclusionThis study synthesized pacing performance in marathons and highlighted the significance of examining pacing strategies in these events, offering valuable insights for coaches and athletes. Several key findings were highlighted: (1) pacing profiles and pacing ranges were identified as the primary indicators of pacing strategies; (2) the pacing strategy was found to be dynamic, with the most substantial effects attributed to gender and distance; and (3) three distinct types of pacing strategies for marathons were classified: positive, negative, and even pacing. These findings advance the understanding of marathon pacing strategies by shedding light on the factors that influence athletes’ pacing decisions and behaviors. Additionally, these findings offer practical benefits, aiding athletes in making well-informed tactical choices and developing effective pace plans to enhance marathon performance. However, due to the complex nature of marathon racing, further research is required to explore additional factors that might impact pacing strategies. A better grasp of optimal pacing strategies will foster progress in this area and serve as a basis for future research and advancements.

Relation between skin temperature and muscle stiffness in masters athletes: Effect of specific training adaptation

Aging process is correlated with negative changes in muscles properties such as their thermal responsiveness and stiffness. At the same time masters athletes are often considered as an exemplars of successful aging. Taking this into account, the aim of the study was to establish thermal portrait of lower limbs in Masters Athletes in Track & Field competing in 200 m race as well as to find out the effect of exercise on muscle stiffness. Thermal images and myotonometry were applied at restin state and immediately after the race. Indoor sprint in Masters athletes did not cause significant skin temperature changes. Only assymetries were found for Biceps femoris muscle (left vs right before p = 0,0410; after p = 0,046). Gastrocnemius was the most responsive area for sprinting in terms of muscle stiffness. Some specific adaptations to sprint were found. Masters athlete's thermal profile of lower extremities was generally characterized by symmetry. Maximal exertion did not result in an increase in muscle stiffness among the athletes, suggesting the positive influence of sports training in aging athletes.

Acute Inflammatory Response to Eccentric Exercise in Young and Master Resistance-trained Athletes.

This study aimed to compare the acute inflammatory response following high-intensity eccentric exercise between resistance-trained young and master athletes with similar performance levels. Resistance-trained young (n=8; 22±2 years) and master (n=8; 52±4 years) male athletes of a similar performance level performed a standardized high-intensity eccentric squat exercise protocol (10 sets of half-squats at 70% of 1-repetition maximum). The serum concentration of 20 biomarkers related to tissue damage, inflammation, remodeling, and repair was measured at baseline, immediately after exercise, and over a 72 h recovery period. Both groups experienced similar muscle damage as evidenced by a comparable increase in creatine kinase activity 24 h after exercise (p<0.001). Interleukin-6 (p=0.009) and growth hormone (p<0.001) increased immediately post-exercise in both groups. Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 increased immediately post-exercise only in young athletes (p=0.003) and then decreased 24 h later. There were no significant differences for the remaining variables, including cell markers related to neutrophil/macrophage activation or pro/anti-inflammatory cytokines. Resistance-trained young and master athletes, matched for performance level, showed an overall similar inflammatory response to eccentric exercise, possibly reflecting regulatory mechanisms or immunological adaptations to chronic stimulation in master athletes.

The role of coronary CT angiography in athletes.

The sudden death of a young or high-level athlete or adolescent during recreational sports is one of the events with the greatest impact on public opinion in modern society. Sudden cardiac death (SCD) is the principal medical cause of death in athletes and can be the first and last clinical presentation of underlying disease. To prevent such episodes, pre-participation screening has been introduced in many countries to guarantee cardiovascular safety during sports and has become a common target among medical sports/governing organizations. Different cardiac conditions may cause SCD, with incidence depending on definition, evaluation methods, and studied populations, and a prevalence and etiology changing according to the age of athletes, with CAD most frequent in master athletes, while coronary anomalies and non-ischemic causes prevalent in young. To detect silent underlying causes early would be of considerable clinical value. This review summarizes the pre-participation screening in athletes, the specialist agonistic suitability visit performed in Italy, the anatomical characteristics of malignant coronary anomalies, and finally, the role of coronary CT angiography in such arena. In particular, the anatomical conditions suggesting potential disqualification from sport, the post-treatment follow-up to reintegrate young athletes, the diagnostic workflow to rule-out CAD in master athletes, and their clinical management are analyzed.

Correction: The Masters athlete in Olympic weightlifting: Training, lifestyle, health challenges, and gender differences

Correction: The Masters athlete in Olympic weightlifting: Training, lifestyle, health challenges, and gender differences

Longitudinal insights into coronary plaque amongst master athletes

Longitudinal insights into coronary plaque amongst master athletes

Cardiovascular and muscular plasticity in an endurance‐master athlete following 12 weeks of detraining and retraining: a case study

AbstractBackgroundThis study examined the cardiorespiratory and muscular adaptations of a 53‐year‐old endurance master athlete following 12 weeks of detraining and retraining.MethodsData were collected before and after detraining, and after retraining. Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) was evaluated during maximal cycling exercise. Proteins involved in muscle contraction, mitochondrial function and glycolysis were investigated using western blot analysis.ResultsVO2max decreased by 7% after detraining and was 5% greater than baseline after retraining. Detraining induced an important increase in the ryanodine receptor type 1 protein levels (RyR1, +44%) with a decrease in the protein levels of its stabilizer FKBP12 (−24%). We observed a 138% increase in the sarco‐endoplasmic reticulum ATPase 1 protein and a 42% increase in the myosin heavy chain fast‐twitch protein in response to detraining. This was associated with depressed levels of the mitochondrial biogenesis and oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) proteins, while the expression of the mitochondrial dynamic proteins appeared stimulated. Twelve weeks of retraining reversed almost all the alterations observed in muscle proteins, but specifically increased mitochondrial biogenesis, OXPHOS and antioxidant defence proteins as well as the glucose transporter 4 (Glut‐4, +36%) and hexokinase (+100%) proteins levels above the baseline. The mitochondrial dynamic proteins were further increased with the retraining.ConclusionsThese data provide novel information on cardiorespiratory and muscular plasticity, suggesting that highly endurance‐trained athletes might show substantial muscular adaptations while retrained after a detraining period and call for more extensive clinical trials.

Healthy aging with sport: A case-report of an 81 years-old Italian man

Age-related decreases in endurance performance are well known. However, several researches have been carried out on octogenarian athletes, who achieved high performance in some endurance sports. This case report aimed to discuss exercise capacity, body composition and the cardiovascular and common risk factors of an 81-year-old man with a high level of physical activity. The man had a body mass index of 25.59 kg/m2 with a high percentage of skeletal muscle mass (79%). Maximal oxygen uptake was 39.5 mL/min/Kg and oxygen pulse was 18.7 mL/beat showing an excellent exercise capacity. Heart and pulmonary functions were optimal for his age. Bioelectrical phase angle was higher than the average values for his age and gender. Physical activity carried out continuously is confirmed a predictor of healthy state in elderly age, however it is mandatory that master athletes carry out periodic checks of their state of health and monitor vital parameters during intense training.